The Implementation Problem for conceptual engineering is, roughly, the problem conceptual engineers face when attempting to bring about the conceptual change they support. An important aspect of this problem concerns the extent to which attempting to implement concepts can lead to unintended negative consequences. Not only can conceptual engineers fail to implement their proposals, but their interventions can produce outcomes directly counter to their goals. It is therefore important to think carefully about the prospect of attempted implementation leading to unintended (...) negative consequences: what sort of negative consequences can conceptual engineers expect? Are some forms of conceptual engineering more likely than others to lead to such consequences? And is conceptual engineering still viable even given the risk of such consequences? This paper addresses such questions. I begin by outlining different forms of conceptual engineering (Section 1), before examining how they can produce unintended negative consequences (Section 2). I then discuss some implications of the fact that attempted implementation can produce unintended negative consequences, suggesting that, among other things, some forms of conceptual engineering are less viable than others (Section 3). I conclude, though, by considering some of the ways in which conceptual engineering is nonetheless a worthwhile pursuit (Section 4). (shrink)

What is personhood? What do we want it to be? Blumenthal-Barby (2024) offers an answer to the first question: personhood is an unhelpful, harmful, and pernicious concept in the bioethical setting....

My dissertation explores the ways in which Rudolf Carnap sought to make philosophy scientific by further developing recent interpretive efforts to explain Carnap’s mature philosophical work as a form of engineering. It does this by looking in detail at his philosophical practice in his most sustained mature project, his work on pure and applied inductive logic. I, first, specify the sort of engineering Carnap is engaged in as involving an engineering design problem and then draw out the complications of design (...) problems from current work in history of engineering and technology studies. I then model Carnap’s practice based on those lessons and uncover ways in which Carnap’s technical work in inductive logic takes some of these lessons on board. This shows ways in which Carnap’s philosophical project subtly changes right through his late work on induction, providing an important corrective to interpretations that ignore the work on inductive logic. Specifically, I show that paying attention to the historical details of Carnap’s attempt to apply his work in inductive logic to decision theory and theoretical statistics in the 1950s and 1960s helps us understand how Carnap develops and rearticulates the philosophical point of the practical/theoretical distinction in his late work, offering thus a new interpretation of Carnap’s technical work within the broader context of philosophy of science and analytical philosophy in general. (shrink)

Between 1942 and the late 1950s, atomic piles (nuclear chain-reactors) were industrialized, initially to generate plutonium for the first atomic weapons and later to serve as copious sources of neutrons, radioisotopes and electrical power. These facilities entrained a new breed of engineering specialist adept at designing, operating and maintaining them. From the beginning, large companies supplied the engineering labor for this new technology, and played an important role in defining the nature of their nuclear expertise. In the USA, the most (...) influential company of the period was DuPont, which assumed responsibility for the first plutonium production reactors at Oak Ridge TN and Hanford WA between 1942-6, and of the postwar production facilities at Savannah River SC 1950-87. This paper explores the transition of authority from so-called “atomic scientists” to nuclear engineers at these sites, and the role played by DuPont in consolidating this new technical profession. (shrink)

The emergence in Britain of chemical engineering, by mid‐century the fourth largest engineering specialism, was a hesitant and drawn out process. This article analyses the organisational politics behind the recognition of the technical occupation and profession from the First World War through to the end of the 1920s. The collective sense of professional identity among nascent ‘chemical engineers’ developed rapidly during this time owing to associations which promoted their cause among potential patrons. -/- .

Canada, as one of the three Allied nations collaborating on atomic energy development during the Second World War, had an early start in applying its new knowledge and defining a new profession. Owing to postwar secrecy and distinct national aims for the field, nuclear engineering was shaped uniquely by the Canadian context. Alone among the postwar powers, Canadian exploration of atomic energy eschewed military applications; the occupation emerged within a governmental monopoly; the intellectual content of the discipline was influenced by (...) its early practitioners, administrators, scarce resources, and university niches; and a self-recognized profession coalesced later than did its American and British counterparts. This paper argues that the history of the emergence of Canadian nuclear engineers exemplifies unusually strong shaping of technical expertise by political and cultural context. (shrink)

The development of a professional identity is particularly interesting for those occupations that have a troubled emergence. The hinterland between science and technology accommodates many such ‘in-between’ subjects, which appear to have distinct attributes. Some of these specialisms disappear in the face of culturally stronger occupations. Others endure, their technical expertise becoming appropriated or mutated to serve the needs of different professional groups. This chapter is concerned with one extreme of these interstitial specialisms. Chemical engineering – a subject that by (...) its very name is between the science of chemistry and the technology of engineering – did eventually become a profession, in at least some countries. It had a relatively easy time becoming established in America in the first third of this century, but chemical engineering remained largely unrecognised in Germany until the 1960s, and has attracted a smaller professional community there. In Britain, the chemical engineering profession has evinced distinct transitions over a period of a century. It emerged to become an influential contributor to western economies and one of the ‘big four’ engineering professions (along with civil, mechanical and electrical engineering) after the second world war, due in large part to the unmindful aid of an influential, if capricious, sponsor: the state. Yet chemical engineers had a long and troubled history of contestation with other professions. Because of this, the British case is particularly appropriate for examining the continual re-casting of the professional identity in response to external and internal pressures. (shrink)

Conceptual engineers endeavor to improve our concepts. But their endeavors face serious practical difficulties. One such difficulty – rational conceptual conflict - concerns the degree to which agents are incentivized to impede the efforts of conceptual engineers, especially in many of the contexts within which conceptual engineering is viewed as a worthwhile pursuit. Under such conditions, the already difficult task of conceptual engineering becomes even more difficult. Consequently, if they want to increase their chances of success, conceptual engineers should pay (...) closer attention to – and devise strategies to mitigate – rational conceptual conflict. After outlining the phenomenon at greater length and mapping its connections to other similar practical problems (Section 1), I explore the dynamics of such conflict by way of several detailed case studies (Section 2). In particular, I focus on cases driven by material, social, and moral incentives. I then consider some important methodological implications of rational conceptual conflict (Section 3). Among other things, I argue that conceptual engineers should focus more heavily on cultivating settings that modify the payoffs and penalties associated with conceptual conflict. By such indirect means, they can incentivize conceptual cooperation rather than conflict, thus making it easier to achieve success in conceptual engineering. Section 4 concludes. (shrink)

The nuclear engineer emerged as a new form of recognised technical professional between 1940 and the early 1960s as nuclear fission, the chain reaction and their applications were explored. The institutionalization of nuclear engineering—channelled into new national laboratories and corporate design offices during the decade after the war, and hurried into academic venues thereafter—proved unusually dependent on government definition and support. This paper contrasts the distinct histories of the new discipline in the USA and UK (and, more briefly, Canada). In (...) the segregated and influential environments of institutional laboratories and factories, historical actors such as physicist Walter Zinn in the USA and industrial chemist Christopher Hinton in the UK proved influential in shaping the roles and perceptions of nuclear specialists. More broadly, I argue that the State-managed implantation of the new subject within further and higher education curricula was shaped strongly by distinct political and economic contexts in which secrecy, postwar prestige and differing industrial cultures were decisive factors. (shrink)

The term “technological fix”, coined by technologist/administrator Alvin Weinberg in 1965, vaunted engineering innovation as a generic tool for circumventing problems commonly conceived as social, political or cultural. A longtime Director of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, government consultant and essayist, Weinberg also popularized the term “Big Science” to describe national goals and the competitive funding environment after the Second World War. Big Science reoriented towards Technological Fixes, he argued, could provide a new “Apollo project” to address social problems of the (...) future. His ideas – most recently echoed in “solutionism” – have channeled confidence and controversy ever since. This paper traces the genesis and promotion of the concept by Weinberg and his contemporaries. It argues that, through it, the marginal politics and technological confidences of interwar scientists and technocrats were repositioned as mainstream notions closer to the heart of Big Science policy. (shrink)

Communities of nuclear workers have evolved in distinctive contexts. During the Manhattan Project the UK, USA and Canada collectively developed the first reactors, isotope separation plants and atomic bombs and, in the process, nurtured distinct cadres of specialist workers. Their later workplaces were often inherited from wartime facilities, or built anew at isolated locations. For a decade, nuclear specialists were segregated and cossetted to gestate practical expertise. At Oak Ridge Tennessee, for example, the informal ‘Clinch College of Nuclear Knowledge’ aimed (...) to industrialise the use of radioactive materials. ‘We were like children in a toy factory’, said its Director: ‘everyone could play the game of designing new nuclear power piles’. His counterpart at Chalk River, Ontario headed a project ‘completely Canadian in every respect’, while the head of the British project chose the remote Dounreay site in northern Scotland because of design uncertainties in the experimental breeder reactor. With the decline of secrecy during the mid-1950s, the hidden specialists lauded as ‘atomic scientists’ gradually became visible as new breeds of engineers, technologists and technicians responsible for nuclear reactors and power plants. Mutated by their different political contexts, occupational categories, labour affiliations, professional representations and popular depictions, their activities were disputed by distinct audiences. This chapter examines the changing identities of nuclear specialists and the significance of their secure sites. Shaped successively by Cold War secrecy, commercial competition and terrorist threats, nuclear energy remained out of site for wider publics and most nuclear specialists alike. The distinctive episodes reveal the changing working experiences of technical workers in late-twentieth and early twenty-first century environments. (shrink)

Mouth ulcers, also known as canker sores, are a common oral health issue affecting a significant portion of the population. Early and accurate diagnosis of mouth ulcers is crucial for effective treatment and prevention of complications. This paper presents an expert system developed using CLIPS (C Language Integrated Production System) to diagnose mouth ulcer disease. The expert system utilizes a rule-based approach, incorporating a comprehensive knowledge base consisting of symptoms, risk factors, and medical literature related to mouth ulcers. By employing (...) an inference engine, the system evaluates patient input against the rules and generates a diagnosis based on the matching symptoms and relevant factors. The system also provides detailed explanations and recommendations for each diagnosis, aiding healthcare professionals and patients in understanding the condition and selecting appropriate treatment options. The development and validation of the expert system involved a multi-step process, including knowledge acquisition, rule formulation, and testing against a diverse dataset of mouth ulcer cases. The system's performance was evaluated by comparing its diagnoses with those made by medical professionals, demonstrating a high level of accuracy and consistency. The implementation of an expert system for diagnosing mouth ulcer disease offers several advantages, including the ability to provide timely and accessible healthcare services, reduce misdiagnosis rates, and assist healthcare professionals in decision-making processes. Moreover, it empowers individuals to make informed decisions about their health and seek appropriate medical intervention. This paper contributes to the field of medical expert systems by showcasing the practical application of CLIPS in the diagnosis of mouth ulcer disease. The results demonstrate the potential of expert systems as valuable tools for healthcare professionals and patients alike, enhancing the efficiency and accuracy of diagnosis in oral health care. (shrink)

An action-oriented perspective changes the role of an individual from a passive observer to an actively engaged agent interacting in a closed loop with the world as well as with others. Cognition exists to serve action within a landscape that contains both. This chapter surveys this landscape and addresses the status of the pragmatic turn. Its potential influence on science and the study of cognition are considered (including perception, social cognition, social interaction, sensorimotor entrainment, and language acquisition) and its impact (...) on how neuroscience is studied is also investigated (with the notion that brains do not passively build models, but instead support the guidance of action). A review of its implications in robotics and engineering includes a discussion of the application of enactive control principles to couple action and perception in robotics as well as the conceptualization of system design in a more holistic, less modular manner. Practical applications that can impact the human condition are reviewed (e.g., educational applications, treatment possibilities for developmental and psychopathological disorders, the development of neural prostheses). All of this foreshadows the potential societal implications of the pragmatic turn. The chapter concludes that an action-oriented approach emphasizes a continuum of interaction between technical aspects of cognitive systems and robotics, biology, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities, where the individual is part of a grounded cultural system. (shrink)

The measurement of light and colour has always been a peripheral science. Light became a 'disciplined' quantity over the period of a century, but the specialist communities that measured it did not. The quantification of visible light (photometry), colour (colorimetry), and radiant intensity (radiometry) involved distinct communities of physicists, psychologists, technicians and engineers. -/- This chapter of _Science in the Shadows_ examines how the measurement of non-visible light became the domain of post Second World War military engineers and classified development (...) programmes. (shrink)

The production of scientific instruments in America was neither a postwar phenomenon nor dramatically different from that of several other developed countries. It did, however, undergo a step-change in direction, size and style during and after the war. The American scientific instrument industry after 1945 was intimately dependent on, and shaped by, prior American and European experience. This was true of the specific genres of instrument produced commercially; to links between industry and science; and, just as importantly, to manufacturing practices (...) and cultures. I will argue that, despite the new types of instrument commercialized after the war, this historical continuity of links with science and scientists guided and constrained the design and manufacture of these products. Nevertheless, new designers, manufacturers and customers gradually transformed the culture of scientific instruments in the second half of the century. -/- This chapter deals with a subset of the American instrument industry, namely the measuring and monitoring instruments manufactured for scientific use. Even with the specification of ‘scientific’ instruments, however, these borders are rather artificial and unclear: instrument making from the seventeenth through the twentieth century has generally involved the fabrication of both standard products and custom-made devices for scientific use.2 In this context of sales quantities, ‘scientific’ instruments have often been defined as low-volume, special-order or custom devices. In a similar vein, ‘scientific’ instruments were commonly distinguished from ‘production’ instruments by context of usage, namely their very absence from – and indeed irrelevance to – production environments. This demarcation according to customer and environment was mirrored in at least one furth er respect: the training of their users. The classification into ‘scientific’ and ‘engineering’ applications was as fluid as the relationship between American universities and technical industries themselves.Despite these complementary definitions, the notion of the ‘scientific instrument’ was beginning to prove inadequate even at the turn of the twentieth century, and dramatically so when discussing the post-Second World War period. Definitions altered qualitatively after the Second World War in at least three further ways: (a) new genres of device altered the scope of the scientific instrument; (b) the contribution of State and military sponsorship of new forms of instrument became significant; and, (c) the postwar demand for specialist instruments increased rapidly, owing to wartime innovation, new applications and new customers. I will explore the evolution of instrument manufacturing in this changing context of new technology, funding, development and markets. (shrink)

Dennis Gabor devised a new concept for optical imaging in 1947 that went by a variety of names over the following decade: holoscopy, wavefront reconstruction, interference microscopy, diffraction microscopy and Gaboroscopy. A well-connected and creative research engineer, Gabor worked actively to publicize and exploit his concept, but the scheme failed to capture the interest of many researchers. Gabor’s theory was repeatedly deemed unintuitive and baffling; the technique was appraised by his contemporaries to be of dubious practicality and, at best, constrained (...) to a narrow branch of science. By the late 1950s, Gabor’s subject had been assessed by its handful of practitioners to be a white elephant. Nevertheless, the concept was later rehabilitated by the research of Emmett Leith and Juris Upatnieks at the University of Michigan, and Yury Denisyuk at the Vavilov Institute in Leningrad. What had been judged a failure was recast as a success: evaluations of Gabor’s work were transformed during the 1960s, when it was represented as the foundation on which to construct the new and distinctly different subject of holography, a re-evaluation that gained the Nobel Prize for Physics for Gabor alone in 1971. This paper focuses on the difficulties experienced in constructing a meaningful subject, a practical application and a viable technical community from Gabor’s ideas during the decade 1947-1957. (shrink)

The title of this piece is meant to evoke at least three sources. The first – and perhaps the only obvious one – concerns the ability of holograms to display parallax, a shifting of visual viewpoint that allows a three-dimensional image to reveal background objects behind those in the foreground. This parallax view is a unique feature of holograms as visual media. A second allusion is to the American film The Parallax View (1974, director A. J. Pakula), a rather paranoid (...) thriller focusing on conspiracy theories concerning government and corporations. To a casual observer, the bare details of the military origins of holography suggest just such cynical and centrally-directed development, although I hope to dispel such simplistic ideas here. And a third passing reference is to the book The Parallax View (2006) by Slavoj Zizek, a wide-ranging and deep exploration of duality in political views, ontological interpretations and scientific methods, among other topics. Zizek’s theme, as well as Pakula’s, is relevant to my approach, which focuses on a parallax of both practice and intent. During the first successful decade of holography, conflicting viewpoints developed between distinct communities: the militarily-guided engineers who invented practical holography, and the later imaging scientists and artisans who stressed three-dimensionality and other attributes instead of the original goal of optical image processing. I argue that distinct groups of users had different perceptions of what holography is and what it is for. (shrink)

Holography, the technology of three-dimensional imaging, has repeatedly been reconceptualised by new communities. Conceived in 1947 as a means of improving electron microscopy, holography was revitalized in the early 1960s by engineer-scientists at classified laboratories. The invention promoted the transformation of a would-be discipline (optical engineering) and spawned limited artist-scientist collaborations. However, a separate artisanal community promoted a distinct countercultural form of holography via a revolutionary technology: the sandbox optical table. Their tools, sponsorship, products, literature and engagement with wider culture (...) differentiated the communities, which instituted a limited ‘technological trade’. The subject strikingly illustrates the co-evolution of new technology along with highly dissimilar user groups, neither of which fostered the secure establishment of a profession or discipline. The case generalises the concept of 'research-technologists' and 'peripheral science', and extends the ideas of Langdon Winner by demonstrating how the political dimensions of a technology can be important but evanescent in the growth of technical communities. (shrink)

The history of holography, the technology of three-dimensional imaging that grew rapidly during the 1960s, has been written primarily by its historical actors and, like many new inventions, its concepts and activities became surrounded by myths and myth-making. The first historical account was disseminated by the central character of this paper, George W. Stroke, while a professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of Michigan. His claims embroiled several workers active in the field of holography and information processing during the (...) 1960s, but transcended personality conflicts: they influenced the early historiography of holography and the awarding of the Nobel Prize for Physics to Dennis Gabor in 1971. An extended discussion of these episodes, based on archival research, publications analysis and interviews with participants, reveals the importance and extraordinary allure of intellectual priority for practicing scientists, and how its history and explanations are woven from multiple accounts and contemporary interpretations. (shrink)

On intellectual foundations that distinguished chemical engineering from other disciplines.

The impact of crude oil on the permeability of the soil in a non oil producing community in Enugu State was investigated using disturbed A 6 CL soil sample collected from Ibagwa Nike area of the state. The sample was divided into five 5 portions and each of the four 4 portions was dosed with Bonny light crude oil at 2 , 4 , 6 and 8 by weight of the samples. The physical properties of the uncontaminated soil were tested (...) and analyses and used as control. The aim of the laboratory investigation was to determine the effects of crude oil on the permeability of the soil. The permeability of the uncontaminated soil was found to be 1.2609x10 7. Permeability tests were also conducted on the contaminated soil samples at the various percentage contaminations. The results showed that at 2 crude oil contamination the permeability was 9.6403x10 9, a drastic reduction. The other results were 6.9600x10 6, 2.2621x10 8 and 9.1286x10 8 at 4 , 6 , and 8 contamination levels, respectively. The ranking after contamination is seen to drop within the range of 10 8 and 10 9 showing a change in the permeability due to oil content. This observed reduction in permeability alters the natural groundwater recharge which can be remedied by enhanced bioremediation through aeration of the soil. Iloeje A. F. | Aniago V. "Effect of Crude Oil on Permeability Properties of the Soil" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-1 | Issue-1 , December 2016 . (shrink)

Given a subject so imbued with contention and conflicting theoretical stances, it is remarkable that automated instruments ever came to replace the human eye as sensitive arbiters of color specification. Yet, dramatic shifts in assumptions and practice did occur in the first half of the twentieth century. How and why was confidence transferred from careful observers to mechanized devices when the property being measured – color – had become so closely identified with human physiology and psychology? A fertile perspective on (...) the problem is via the history of science and technology, paying particular attention to social groups and disciplinary identity to determine how those factors affected their communities’ cognitive territory. There were both common and discordant threads motivating the various technical groups that took on the problems of measuring light and color from the late nineteenth century onwards, and leading them towards the development of appropriate instruments for themselves. The transition from visual to photoelectric methods could be portrayed as a natural evolution, replacing the eye by an alternative roviding more sensitivity and convenience – indeed, this is the conventional positivist view propounded by technical histories. However, the adoption of new measurement technologies seldom is simple, and frequently has a significant cultural component. Beneath this slide towards automation lay a raft of implicit assumptions about objectivity, the nature of the observer, the role of instruments, and the trade-offs between standardization and descriptive power. While espousing rational arguments for a physical detector of color, its proponents weighted their views with tacit considerations. The reassignment of trust from the eye to automated instruments was influenced as much by the historical context as by intellectual factors. I will argue that several distinct aspects were involved, which include the reductive view of color provided by the trichromatic theory; the impetus provided by its association with photometry; the expanding mood for a quantitative and objective approach to scientific observation; and, the pressures for commercial standardization. As suggested by these factors, there was another shift of authority at play: from one technical specialism to another. The regularization of color involved appropriation of the subject by a particular set of social interests: communities of physicists and engineers espousing a ‘physicalist’ interpretation, rather than psychologists and physiologists for whom color was conceived as a more complex phenomenon. Moreover, the sources for automated color measurement, and instrumentation for measuring color, were primarily from the industrial sphere rather than from academic science. To understand these shifts, then, this chapter explores differing views of the importance of observers, machines and automation. (shrink)

According to some critics, if biology is a kind of reverse engineering for the nature, it is quite poorly prepared for the task. Thus, the issue is more likely with its ontology. Multiple hypotheses and conjectures found in papers on methodological issues claim that living systems should be viewed as complex networks of signal-transmitting paths, both neural and non-neural, that feature modularity and feedback circuits and are prone to emergent properties and increasing complexity. If so, we are on the eve (...) of a new stage in computer models development where not only computers are used to emulate life, but life itself is construed as a complex network of interacting natural computers. (shrink)

This study, presenting a history of the measurement of light intensity from its first hesitant emergence to its gradual definition as a scientific subject, explores two major themes. The first concerns the adoption by the evolving physics and engineering communities of quantitative measures of light intensity around the turn of the twentieth century. The mathematisation of light measurement was a contentious process that hinged on finding an acceptable relationship between the mutable response of the human eye and the more easily (...) stabilised, but less encompassing, techniques of physical measurement. -/- A second theme is the exploration of light measurement as an example of ‘peripheral science’. Among the characteristics of such a science, I identify the lack of a coherent research tradition and the persistent partitioning of the subject between disparate groups of practitioners. Light measurement straddled the conventional categories of ‘science’ and ‘technology’, and was influenced by such distinct factors as utilitarian requirements, technological innovation, human perception and bureaucratisation. Peripheral fields such as this, which may be typical of much of modern science and technology, have hitherto received little attention from historians. -/- These themes are pursued with reference to the social and technological factors which were combined inextricably in the development of the subject. The intensity of light gained only sporadic attention until the late nineteenth century. Measured for the utilitarian needs of the gas lighting industry from the second half of the century, light intensity was appropriated by members of the nascent electric lighting industry, too, in their search for a standard of illumination. By the turn of the century the ‘illuminating engineering movement’ was becoming an organised, if eclectic, community which promoted research into and standards for the measurement of light intensity. -/- The twentieth-century development of the subject was moulded by organisation and institutionalisation. Between 1900 and 1920, the new national and industrial laboratories in Britain, America and Germany were crucial in stabilising the subject. In the inter-war period, committees and international commissions sought to standardise light measurement and to promote research. Such government- and industry-supported delegations, rather than academic institutions, were primarily responsible for the ‘construction’ of the subject. Practitioners increasingly came to interpret the three topics of photometry (visible light measurement), colorimetry (the measurement of colour) and radiometry (the measurement of invisible radiations) as aspects of a broader study, and enthusiastically applied them to industrial and scientific problems. -/- From the 1920s, the long-established visual methods of observation were increasingly replaced by physical means of light measurement, a process initially contingent on scientific fashion more than demonstrated superiority. New photoelectric techniques for measuring light intensity engendered new commercial instruments, a trend which accelerated in the following decade when photometric measurement was applied with limited success to a range of industrial problems. Seeds sowed in the 1920s – namely commercialisation and industrial application, the transition from visual to ‘physical’ methods, and the search for fundamental limitations in light measurement – gave the subject substantially the form it was to retain over the next half-century. (shrink)

Background: There is no doubt that strawberry diseases are one of the most important reasons that led to the destruction of strawberry plants and their crops. This leads to obvious damage to these plants and they become inedible. Discovering these diseases after a good step for proper and correct treatment. Determining the treatment with high accuracy depends on the method used in the diagnosis. Correctly, expert systems can greatly help in avoiding damage to these plants. The expert system correctly diagnoses (...) strawberry disease to make it easier for farmers to find the right treatment based on the appropriate diagnosis. Objectives: The main goal of this expert system is to get the appropriate diagnosis of disease and the correct treatment. Methods: In this paper the design of the proposed Expert System which was produced to help Farmers and students interested in agriculture strawberry in diagnosing many of the strawberry diseases such as: Leaf Spots, Grey Mold, Red Stele/Red Core, Wilt, Powdery Mildew, Alternaria Spot, Black Root Rot, Anthracnose (black spot), and Angular Leaf Spot. The proposed expert system presents an overview about strawberry diseases are given, the cause of diseases are outlined and the treatment of disease whenever possible is given out. CLIPS language was used for designing and implementing the proposed expert system. Results: The proposed strawberry diseases diagnosis expert system was evaluated by Farmers and they were satisfied with its performance. Conclusions: The Proposed expert system is very useful for Farmers with strawberry problem and students interested in agriculture strawberry. (shrink)

A description of consciousness leads to a contradiction with the postulation from special relativity that there can be no connections between simultaneous event. This contradiction points to consciousness involving quantum level mechanisms. The Quantum level description of the universe is re- evaluated in the light of what is observed in consciousness namely 4 Dimensional objects. A new improved interpretation of Quantum level observations is introduced. From this vantage point the following axioms of consciousness is presented. Consciousness consists of two distinct (...) components, the observed U and the observer I. The observed U consist of all the events I is aware of. A vast majority of these occur simultaneously. Now if I were to be an entity within the space-time continuum, all of these events of U together with I would have to occur at one point in space-time. However, U is distributed over a definite region of space-time (region in brain). Thus, I is aware of a multitude of space-like separated events. It is seen that this awareness necessitates I to be an entity outside the space-time continuum. With I taken as such, a new concept called concept A is introduced. With the help of concept A a very important axiom of consciousness, namely Free Will is explained. (shrink)

Papaya is a tropical fruit with a green cover, yellow pulp, and a taste between mango and cantaloupe, having commercial importance because of its high nutritive and medicinal value. The process of sorting papaya fruit based on maturely is one of the processes that greatly determine the mature of papaya fruit that will be sold to consumers. The manual grading of papaya fruit based on human visual perception is time-consuming and destructive. The objective of this paper is to the status (...) classification of papaya fruits if it's mature or partially matured or unmatured. A deep learning technique that was extensively applied to image recognition was used. The trained model achieved an accuracy of 100% on a held-out test set, demonstrating the feasibility of this approach. Classification model of VGG16 achieved a 100% accuracy and 112 seconds of training time. (shrink)

The essential biological processes that sustain life are catalyzed by protein nano-engines, which maintain living systems in far-from-equilibrium ordered states. To investigate energetic processes in proteins, we have analyzed the system of generalized Davydov equations that govern the quantum dynamics of multiple amide I exciton quanta propagating along the hydrogen-bonded peptide groups in α-helices. Computational simulations have confirmed the generation of moving Davydov solitons by applied pulses of amide I energy for protein α-helices of varying length. The stability and mobility (...) of these solitons depended on the uniformity of dipole-dipole coupling between amide I oscillators, and the isotropy of the exciton-phonon interaction. Davydov solitons were also able to quantum tunnel through massive barriers, or to quantum interfere at collision sites. The results presented here support a nontrivial role of quantum effects in biological systems that lies beyond the mechanistic support of covalent bonds as binding agents of macromolecular structures. Quantum tunneling and interference of Davydov solitons provide catalytically active macromolecular protein complexes with a physical mechanism allowing highly efficient transport, delivery, and utilization of free energy, besides the evolutionary mandate of biological order that supports the existence of such genuine quantum phenomena, and may indeed demarcate the quantum boundaries of life. (shrink)

Collected and edited by Noah Levin -/- Table of Contents: -/- UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION TO CONTEMPORARY ETHICS: TECHNOLOGY, AFFIRMATIVE ACTION, AND IMMIGRATION 1 The “Trolley Problem” and Self-Driving Cars: Your Car’s Moral Settings (Noah Levin) 2 What is Ethics and What Makes Something a Problem for Morality? (David Svolba) 3 Letter from the Birmingham City Jail (Martin Luther King, Jr) 4 A Defense of Affirmative Action (Noah Levin) 5 The Moral Issues of Immigration (B.M. Wooldridge) 6 The Ethics of our (...) Digital Selves (Noah Levin) -/- UNIT TWO: TORTURE, DEATH, AND THE “GREATER GOOD” 7 The Ethics of Torture (Martine Berenpas) 8 What Moral Obligations do we have (or not have) to Impoverished Peoples? (B.M. Wooldridge) 9 Euthanasia, or Mercy Killing (Nathan Nobis) 10 An Argument Against Capital Punishment (Noah Levin) 11 Common Arguments about Abortion (Nathan Nobis & Kristina Grob) 12 Better (Philosophical) Arguments about Abortion (Nathan Nobis & Kristina Grob) -/- UNIT THREE: PERSONS, AUTONOMY, THE ENVIRONMENT, AND RIGHTS 13 Animal Rights (Eduardo Salazar) 14 John Rawls and the “Veil of Ignorance” (Ben Davies) 15 Environmental Ethics: Climate Change (Jonathan Spelman) 16 Rape, Date Rape, and the “Affirmative Consent” Law in California (Noah Levin) 17 The Ethics of Pornography: Deliberating on a Modern Harm (Eduardo Salazar) 18 The Social Contract (Thomas Hobbes) -/- UNIT FOUR: HAPPINESS 19 Is Pleasure all that Matters? Thoughts on the “Experience Machine” (Prabhpal Singh) 20 Utilitarianism (J.S. Mill) 21 Utilitarianism: Pros and Cons (B.M. Wooldridge) 22 Existentialism, Genetic Engineering, and the Meaning of Life: The Fifths (Noah Levin) 23 The Solitude of the Self (Elizabeth Cady Stanton) 24 Game Theory, the Nash Equilibrium, and the Prisoner’s Dilemma (Douglas E. Hill) -/- UNIT FIVE: RELIGION, LAW, AND ABSOLUTE MORALITY 25 The Myth of Gyges and The Crito (Plato) 26 God, Morality, and Religion (Kristin Seemuth Whaley) 27 The Categorical Imperative (Immanuel Kant) 28 The Virtues (Aristotle) 29 Beyond Good and Evil (Friedrich Nietzsche) 30 Other Moral Theories: Subjectivism, Relativism, Emotivism, Intuitionism, etc. (Jan F. Jacko). (shrink)

There is no doubt that tomato diseases are one of the important reasons that destroy the tomato plant and its crops. This leads to clear damage to these plants and they become inedible. Discovering these diseases after a good step for proper and correct treatment. Determining the treatment with high accuracy depends on the method used in the diagnosis. Correctly, expert systems can greatly help to avoid damage to these plants. The expert system diagnoses tomato disease correctly to facilitate farmers (...) to find the correct treatment based on the appropriate diagnosis. Objectives: An expert system has been established based on CLIPS to diagnose tomato plant disease. (shrink)

Abstract: Artificial Intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing the agricultural sector by enhancing productivity and sustainability. This paper explores the transformative impact of AI technologies on agriculture, focusing on their applications in precision farming, predictive analytics, and automation. AI-driven tools enable more efficient management of crops and resources, leading to improved yields and reduced environmental impact. The paper examines key AI technologies, including machine learning algorithms for crop monitoring, robotics for automated planting and harvesting, and data analytics for optimizing resource use. Additionally, (...) it addresses challenges such as data privacy, technology adoption barriers, and the ethical implications of AI in farming. By integrating AI into agricultural practices, the industry can achieve greater efficiency and sustainability, paving the way for future advancements. (shrink)

This abstract is a synopsis of the paper "An Expert System for Diagnosing Whooping Cough Using CLIPS." The bacterium Bordetella pertussis causes whooping cough, a highly infectious respiratory ailment with several phases of symptoms. An accurate and timely diagnosis is critical for effective treatment and the avoidance of future transmission. The construction of an expert system for detecting whooping cough using the CLIPS (C Language Integrated Production System) architecture is highlighted in this abstract. The expert system provides standardized and systematic (...) evaluation, which reduces the chance of misdiagnosis and improves patient outcomes. Maintenance and upgrades are required to keep the system current with growing medical knowledge. More study in this area has the potential to advance expert systems in identifying and managing a variety of medical disorders. (shrink)

Migraine is a complex neurological disorder characterized by recurrent moderate to severe headaches, accompanied by additional symptoms such as nausea, sensitivity to light and sound, and visual disturbances. Accurate and timely diagnosis of migraines is crucial for effective management and treatment. However, the diverse range of symptoms and overlapping characteristics with other headache disorders pose challenges in the diagnostic process. In this research, we propose the development of an expert system for migraine diagnosis using artificial intelligence and the CLIPS (C (...) Language Integrated Production System) framework. The expert system utilizes a rule-based inference engine to analyze patient-reported symptoms and provide reliable diagnoses or probability scores indicating the likelihood of migraine. The knowledge base of the expert system is designed based on expert knowledge obtained from medical professionals specializing in migraines. The collected knowledge is translated into a structured format suitable for the CLIPS inference engine, incorporating rules and facts to represent the diagnostic criteria and associated symptoms. The system prompts users to provide relevant information about their symptoms, medical history, and potential triggers. It applies the defined rules and facts to evaluate the likelihood of migraine and generate accurate diagnoses or probability scores. Preliminary evaluation results demonstrate the potential of the expert system as a valuable tool for diagnosing migraines. A dataset of anonymized patient records with confirmed migraine cases was used to test the system. The diagnoses generated by the expert system were compared against the known diagnoses, and a high level of accuracy was observed, with 90% of cases correctly diagnosed as migraines. These results highlight the effectiveness and reliability of the system in assisting medical professionals in the diagnosis of migraines. The proposed expert system offers several advantages for migraine diagnosis. It leverages the collective knowledge and expertise of experienced migraine specialists, providing a standardized and consistent approach to diagnosis. The system can handle large amounts of patient data and effectively analyse complex relationships between symptoms, risk factors, and diagnostic criteria. Furthermore, it offers real-time feedback and recommendations, supporting medical professionals in their clinical decision-making process. Future work involves refining the expert system based on feedback from medical experts, expanding the knowledge base to encompass a wider range of symptoms and risk factors, and conducting further evaluations to enhance its accuracy and applicability in clinical settings. The development of an expert system for migraine diagnosis has the potential to improve the diagnostic process, leading to more effective management and treatment strategies for individuals suffering from migraines. (shrink)

In both paradigm-shaping novels, the central issue is the human person: Is s/he an autonomous being, that is a “being-for-itself” (with apologies to Jean-Paul Sartre) endowed with free-will and the inherent power to organize and hence determine her/his future? Or, is s/he solely a physico-mechanical “object” whose ideas, thoughts, feelings and decisions are just by-products of her/his physico-chemical constitution, genetic configuration and environmental conditioning? From where does s/he draw the meaningfulness of her/his life? Or perhaps the more fundamental question is: (...) Is her/his life meaningful at all? Is humanity’s future predetermined by material limitations in a closed system of reality or it depends on one’s choices and decisions in a reality that is open to the unhindered operation of her/his free will? Or, given that there is human free will, could the problem lie in the condition that the majority of human beings conduct their lives like sheep in a flock whose course is stirred, regulated and determined by the strong, the tough and the powerful minority among them? Are manipulation and control an inherent dynamic to make society orderly and organized, well-coordinated, well-managed and properly governed? (shrink)

A newborn baby is an infant within the first 28 days of birth. Diagnosis and treatment of infant diseases require specialized medical resources and expert knowledge. However, there is a shortage of such professionals globally, particularly in low-income countries. To address this challenge, a knowledge-based system was designed to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of neonatal diseases. The system utilizes both machine learning and health expert knowledge, and a hybrid data mining process model was used to extract knowledge from (...) a clinical dataset. The PART algorithm achieved the highest performance result with 98.06% accuracy under 10-fold cross-validation, and the generated rules were used to develop the knowledge-based system. The system achieved 90.9% accuracy in system performance testing and 89.2% in user acceptance testing, and is intended to serve as an assistant tool for healthcare experts. (shrink)

Abstract: Colon cancer is a prevalent and life-threatening disease, necessitating accurate and timely diagnosis for effective treatment and improved patient outcomes. This research paper presents the development of a knowledge-based system for diagnosing colon cancer using the CLIPS language. Knowledge-based systems offer the potential to assist healthcare professionals in making informed diagnoses by leveraging expert knowledge and reasoning mechanisms. The methodology involves acquiring and structuring medical knowledge specific to colon cancer, followed by the implementation of a knowledge- based system using (...) CLIPS. The system's design integrates relevant medical databases and employs advanced reasoning mechanisms to facilitate accurate diagnosis. Evaluation results demonstrate the system's effectiveness, with high accuracy and sensitivity rates compared to existing methods. The findings highlight the potential of knowledge-based systems in improving clinical practice and patient care. The research contributes to the growing field of medical informatics by demonstrating the feasibility and effectiveness of CLIPS-based knowledge systems for colon cancer diagnosis. Future research can focus on enhancing system performance and expanding its scope to encompass other types of cancer diagnoses. (shrink)

There is an increase in the use of in-door wireless networking solutions via Wi-Fi and this increase infiltrated and utilized Wi-Fi enable devices, as well as smart mobiles, games consoles, security systems, tablet PCs and smart TVs. Thus the demand on Wi-Fi connections increased rapidly. Rule Based System is an essential method in helping using the human expertise in many challenging fields. In this paper, a Rule Based System was designed and developed for diagnosing the wireless connection problems and attain (...) a precise decision about the cause of the problem. SL5 Object expert system language was used in developing the rule based system. An Evaluation of the rule based system was carried out to test its accuracy and the results were promising. (shrink)

Anxiety is a main contributor to human psychological sufferings. Its evolutionary sources are generally related to alert signals for coping with adverse or unexpected situations [Steiner, 2002] or to hunter-gatherer emotions mismatched with today environments [Horwitz & Wakefield, 2012]. We propose here another evolutionary perspective that links human anxiety to an evolutionary nature of self-consciousness. That approach introduces new relations between mental health and human mind. The proposed evolutionary scenario starts with the performance of primate identification with conspecifics [de Waal (...) 1998, 2008]. It is assumed that the evolution of that identification brought our ancestors to represent themselves as entities existing in the environment, like conspecifics were represented as existing in the environment. We consider that this process has implemented in the mind of our ancestors some first elements of self-consciousness [Menant 2014a]. But the same process has also produced new sufferings coming from identification with suffering or endangered conspecifics. In addition, the emerging performance of self-focus brought in the new feeling of being a suffering entity. We consider that all these new sufferings have created in the mind of our primate ancestors a huge anxiety increase, unbearable if not limited. Among the options available to limit that anxiety increase we focus on two of them that may have taken place. The first was a withdrawal from the process. Some primates may have simply rejected the evolution of identification (and with it self-consciousness). This may have led them to an ecological niche resulting in our today great apes. The second option was about limiting the causes of sufferings and taking advantage of possible resulting evolutionary benefits. This may have been achieved by developing performances like imitation, communication, simulation, synergy and ToM. Added to a positive feedback on identification these performances may have initiated an evolutionary engine that has accelerated the evolution toward human self-consciousness. That option is characterized by an early build up of anxiety limitation processes in an evolutionary nature of our human self-consciousness. This option corresponds to a human specificity and introduces anxiety management and self-consciousness as sharing a same evolutionary story. The build up of these anxiety management processes is now buried in the evolutiony story of our human mind. But these processes are still present in our minds at an unconscious level and participate to many of our human mental states and behaviors. Such positioning of anxiety management as part of the nature of human mind is new and makes available entry points for new understandings of human emotion, motivations and mental disorders. The proposed evolutionary scenario has been introduced in philosophy of mind [Menant 2011, 2014a, b] but it has not been so far explicitly part of primatology nor of psychology/psychiatry/ethics. We present here a drawing of the scenario with highlights on corresponding key points. More work is needed on these new evolutionary links between human mind and anxiety management. References: de Waal, F B.M. (1998). No imitation without identification. Behavioral and Brain Sciences (1998) 21:89. http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Abstracts/deWaal_98.html de Waal, F B.M. (2008). Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2008, 59. http://www.life.umd.edu/faculty/wilkinson/BIOL608W/deWaalAnnRevPsych2008.pdf Horwitz, A. V. and Wakefield, J. C. (2012). All We Have to Fear: Psychiatry’s Transformation of Natural Anxieties into Mental Disorders. Oxford Univ. Press. 2012. Menant, C. (2011). Computation on Information, Meaning and Representations. An Evolutionary Approach. https://philpapers.org/rec/MENCOI Menant, C. (2014a). Proposal for an evolutionary approach to self-consciousness. https://philpapers.org/rec/MENPFA-3 Menant, C. (2014b). Consciousness of oneself as object and as subject. Proposal for an evolutionary approach. https://philpapers.org/rec/MENCOO Steiner, T. (2002). The biology of fear- and anxiety-related behaviors. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2002 Sep; 4(3): 231–249. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181681/. (shrink)

Creativity pervades human life. It is the mark of individuality, the vehicle of self-expression, and the engine of progress in every human endeavor. It also raises a wealth of neglected and yet evocative philosophical questions: What is the role of consciousness in the creative process? How does the audience for a work for art influence its creation? How can creativity emerge through childhood pretending? Do great works of literature give us insight into human nature? Can a computer program really be (...) creative? How do we define creativity in the first place? Is it a virtue? What is the difference between creativity in science and art? Can creativity be taught? The new essays that comprise The Philosophy of Creativity take up these and other key questions and, in doing so, illustrate the value of interdisciplinary exchange. Written by leading philosophers and psychologists involved in studying creativity, the essays integrate philosophical insights with empirical research. CONTENTS I. Introduction Introducing The Philosophy of Creativity Elliot Samuel Paul and Scott Barry Kaufman II. The Concept of Creativity 1. An Experiential Account of Creativity Bence Nanay III. Aesthetics & Philosophy of Art 2. Creativity and Insight Gregory Currie 3. The Creative Audience: Some Ways in which Readers, Viewers and/or Listeners Use their Imaginations to Engage Fictional Artworks Noël Carroll 4. The Products of Musical Creativity Christopher Peacocke IV. Ethics & Value Theory 5. Performing Oneself Owen Flanagan 6. Creativity as a Virtue of Character Matthew Kieran V. Philosophy of Mind & Cognitive Science 7. Creativity and Not So Dumb Luck Simon Blackburn 8. The Role of Imagination in Creativity Dustin Stokes 9. Creativity, Consciousness, and Free Will: Evidence from Psychology Experiments Roy F. Baumeister, Brandon J. Schmeichel, and C. Nathan DeWall 10. The Origins of Creativity Elizabeth Picciuto and Peter Carruthers 11. Creativity and Artificial Intelligence: a Contradiction in Terms? Margaret Boden VI. Philosophy of Science 12. Hierarchies of Creative Domains: Disciplinary Constraints on Blind-Variation and Selective-Retention Dean Keith Simonton VII. Philosophy of Education (& Education of Philosophy) 13. Educating for Creativity Berys Gaut 14. Philosophical Heuristics Alan Hájek. (shrink)

While representation learning techniques have shown great promise in application to a number of different NLP tasks, they have had little impact on the problem of ontology matching. Unlike past work that has focused on feature engineering, we present a novel representation learning approach that is tailored to the ontology matching task. Our approach is based on embedding ontological terms in a high-dimensional Euclidean space. This embedding is derived on the basis of a novel phrase retrofitting strategy through which semantic (...) similarity information becomes inscribed onto fields of pre-trained word vectors. The resulting framework also incorporates a novel outlier detection mechanism based on a denoising autoencoder that is shown to improve performance. An ontology matching system derived using the proposed framework achieved an F-score of 94% on an alignment scenario involving the Adult Mouse Anatomical Dictionary and the Foundational Model of Anatomy ontology (FMA) as targets. This compares favorably with the best performing systems on the Ontology Alignment Evaluation Initiative anatomy challenge. We performed additional experiments on aligning FMA to NCI Thesaurus and to SNOMED CT based on a reference alignment extracted from the UMLS Metathesaurus. Our system obtained overall F-scores of 93.2% and 89.2% for these experiments, thus achieving state-of-the-art results. (shrink)

Natural resources are infinite. This is possible because humans can create theories whose potential goes beyond the limited imaginative capacity of the inventor. For instance, no number of people can work out all the economic potential of quantum theory. Economic Resources are created by an interaction of Karl Popper's Worlds 1, 2 and 3, the worlds of physics, psychology and the abstract products of the human mind, such as scientific theories. Knowledge such as scientific theories has unfathomable information content, is (...) universally applicable, and infinitely copyable. The point can be made with technological knowledge such as that embodied in the wheel. The theory of the wheel has un- bounded potential to be embodied in unforeseeable new technologies, is useful on the Moon as on Earth, and can be infinitely copied. Unlike a piece of land (using fixed factors), such knowledge shows increasing returns. This helps to explain Julian Simon's observation that "natural" resources are now less scarce than they used to be and why an increasing population can increase resources in the long-run. It was Simon's breakthrough to elaborate on the abstract character of "natural" resources. I further explore this abstract character and thereby explain why natural resources are infinitely expandable. Economic growth and the creation of natural resources depends on the rate of invention. F. Machlup's suggestion (Machlup 1962) that the opportunity for new inventions increases geometrically with the number of inventions at hand is acknowledged for its suggestiveness, but criticised for its conservative position. Frank Tipler's fascinating argument for indefinite economic growth (Tipler 1994), is reinforced by my argument by making a distinction between information in the engineer's sense and the infinite potential "information" in our scientific knowledge based on Popper's notion of information content. (shrink)

INTRODUÇÃO A maioria dos alimentos que os bovinos de corte e leite consomem são os alimentos volumosos (forragens, gramíneas ou leguminosas) que é um alimento que possui teor de fibra detergente neutra (FDN) ≥ 25% da matéria seca (MS), ou teor de fibra ≥ 18% da MS. Por possuir grande quantidade de fibra em sua composição é um alimento que possui menor concentração de proteínas, carboidratos não estruturais (CNE) e lipídios. Para que um animal possa manter-se com alimentação volumosa, é (...) necessário a ingestão de grande quantidade desse material. Quando os bovinos recebem apenas forragens, não conseguem ingerir o suficiente para obter a energia, proteínas, minerais e vitaminas necessárias para converter os nutrientes em produtos (carne, leite etc.). Assim, faz-se necessário a inclusão de uma fonte alimentar concentrada em nutrientes na dieta dos bovinos. O alimento concentrado é aquele que contém menor teor de FDN < 25% ou teor de fibra bruta (FB) < 18%. Logo, pelo baixo teor de fibras é um alimento rico em energia e/ou proteínas. Divide-se em concentrados proteicos, os que possuem um teor de proteína bruta (PB) > 20% da MS e em concentrados energéticos, os que possuem < 20% de PB da MS. Para suprir todas as necessidades de mantença, crescimento, reprodução e produção, os bovinos devem receber alimentos suficientes e que forneçam a quantidade necessária dos nutrientes exigidos pelos animais em função da aptidão, estado fisiológico, categoria etc. Nutrientes fornecidos pela dieta (kg/dia) = necessidades dos bovinos (kg/dia) A formulação de rações consiste em combinar, nas quantidades necessárias, os alimentos que serão oferecidos para suprir as necessidades diárias do animal. Uma ração balanceada é aquela que fornece ao animal as proporções e quantidades corretas de todos os nutrientes necessários por um período de 24 horas. Às vezes, o criador possui controle total sobre os tipos e proporções de vários alimentos que compõem a ração. É o caso dos animais em sistema de confinamento, onde se conhece todo e qualquer alimento que o animal ingere e sua respectiva exigência, o que torna a formulação fácil. No entanto, balancear a ração, às vezes, é uma tarefa difícil. Normalmente, os animais em pastejo podem escolher não apenas a quantidade de pasto que consomem, mas também a sua composição. Os animais podem selecionar várias partes da planta e rejeitar outras. Para elaborar um programa alimentar, utilizando os métodos de formulação e balanceamento de rações é necessário, inicialmente, da explanação de alguns conceitos-chave da nutrição e, sem dúvidas, do entendimento e conhecimento das exigências nutricionais dos animais em função da idade, da raça, do estado fisiológico etc., além da composição bromatológica dos alimentos disponíveis para os animais. Sendo assim, a finalidade desse trabalho, em suma, é a explanação de conceitos-chave da nutrição, bem como da elaboração de tabelas dos requerimentos nutricionais diários dos animais, além da elaboração, alicerçado pela literatura disponível, da composição bromatológica dos alimentos, em especial do conteúdo proteico e energético dos mesmos. Por fim, conhecendo a composição dos alimentos e as exigências dos animais de acordo com a categoria, é realizado o balanço para saber, finalmente, se os alimentos suprem os requisitos dos animais e, se não atender os requerimentos, seja necessária uma adição suplementar para suprir todos os requerimentos para que os animais possam se manter e produzir, sempre visando uma elaboração alimentar econômica e viável tanto para os grandes pecuaristas quanto aos pequenos criadores. 1. GENERALIDADES 1.1 Balanceamento de rações Consiste na preparação de alimentos suficientemente nutritivos que cumpram com os requerimentos proteicos, energéticos, vitamínicos e minerais dos animais. Sendo assim, nos deparamos com alguns questionamentos, dentre eles a importância do balanceamento. Quando uma ração não está equilibrada há um excesso e/ou deficiência de determinados nutrientes. Alguns desequilíbrios possuem consequências drásticas e se não forem corrigidos podem causar até a morte do animal (por exemplo, um desequilíbrio de Ca próximo ao parto pode causar a febre do leite e morte do animal se não for tratado imediatamente). Alguns sintomas observados no animal podem auxiliar na identificação dos desequilíbrios, principalmente sintomas relacionados à carência de vitaminas e minerais. No entanto, outros desequilíbrios são difíceis de identificar, uma vez que resultam de algum grau de perda de desempenho. Os bovinos não têm um desempenho tão bom quanto seu potencial genético permitiria quando há algum desequilíbrio na ração. Os desequilíbrios tendem a afetar os animais com alto potencial genético. Nem todos os desequilíbrios alimentares possuem consequências devastadoras, mas todo desequilíbrio nutricional é economicamente inaceitável, uma vez que produz uma perda de produção e perda de nutrientes que poderiam ser utilizados efetivamente pelos animais para suas funções básicas. 1.2 Consumo de MS Matéria seca é a razão do alimento desprovido de umidade. Por exemplo, quando corta-se o capim e expõe-se o mesmo ao sol, irá murchar e logo sua cor mudará de verde para um café ou amarelo escuro em consequência da maior perda de água presente na composição. Quanto mais exposta ao calor mais seca a forragem ficará e esse conteúdo é o que se denomina de matéria seca. Por exemplo, quando o grão de milho perde toda água contida nele sua matéria seca é de 88%, aproximadamente. Cada pasto possui uma porcentagem diferente de umidade e varia em função da idade. Logo, podemos concluir que pastagens jovens possuem mais suculência (maior quantidade de água) e os pastos mais velhos possuem menor suculência, fazendo com que os bovinos prefiram ingerir os pastos mais jovens por possuírem melhor palatabilidade e degustação ao animal. A B Em A podemos observar um pasto velho com uma característica mais seca, ou seja, com uma menor quantidade de água. Por outo lado, em B podemos observar um pasto mais jovem, com maior porcentagem de água em sua composição. Agora, vamos conhecer o consumo de MS pelos bovinos. Na teoria, e recomendável, para cada 100 kg de peso vivo (PV), o bovino deve consumir o equivalente de MS entre 1,8 e 3,5 kg, ou seja, é o mesmo que dizer de 1,8 a 3,5% do PV. Esses valores nos indicam que um animal jovem consome menor matéria seca e vice-versa, e animais adultos consomem maior quantidade de MS. O consumo de MS varia em função do peso do animal, do estado fisiológico e da porcentagem de digestibilidade do alimento, por exemplo, bovinos de até 600 kg podem consumir até 10,5 kg/dia de MS sob um pasto com digestibilidade de 80%. Como regra geral, para saber com que ponto de escala se considera 1,8 e 3,5% usa-se: Para: Vaca em produção leiteira = 3,2% (vaca com 500 kg, 3,2% equivale a 16 kg de MS/dia) Vaca adulta e grande = 3,3 ou 3,4% Novilhas (os) com 300 kg = 2,8% (2,8% de 300 kg equivale a 8,4 kg de MS/dia) Exemplos: Uma bezerra pesa 120 kg. Qual a quantidade de MS que ela deverá consumir? 120 kg bezerra ----------- 100% (correspondente) X kg de MS ------------- 2,7%¹ ¹ - a maioria das pastagens possuem essa porcentagem de MS Pelos cálculos vamos obter: "X=" "120 x 2,7" /"100" "= 3,24 kg de MS" Sendo assim, a bezerra deverá consumir 3,24 kg de MS/dia. Temos uma umidade média de 80% o que indica que o restante é de material seco. 3,24 kg ------------- 20% correspondente X -------------- 80% umidade "X=" "3,24 x 80" /"20" "= 12,96 kg de água" Agora água + material seco: 3,24 kg de MS + 12,96 kg de água = 16,2 kg de forragem verde para a bezerra de 120 kg de PV. As forragens nunca se encontram em forma de material seco e sim de material verde, indicando-nos a presença de água entre 65 e 85% de sua composição. Mas, como conhecer com exatidão a umidade ou a presença de água de um produto? Para se conhecer com exatidão o teor de umidade de um determinado alimento, pode-se seguir os seguintes passos: 1. Separar 1 kg de forragem 2. Pôr no sol ou em um forno para desidratar até que esteja seco o bastante como para moer 3. Pesar e o peso que diminuiu será o conteúdo de água que continha Exemplo: 1000 g de forragem verde ---------- 100% 200 g de forragem seca ---------- X% X = "200 x 100" /"1000" "= 20%" Logo, a matéria seca é 20% e o conteúdo de água é de 100% - 20% = 80%. O esquema abaixo representa a secagem anterior, seja por sol ou em forno. 1.3 Necessidades de água Resumidamente, a água é necessária para o metabolismo, para a produção (leite e carne) e para as necessidades ambientais. A água é o nutriente que as vacas de leite requerem em maior quantidade. A água é um nutriente primordial na manutenção da produção leiteira e cárnea dos bovinos. A produção de leite, por exemplo, reduzirá no mesmo dia em que a água não estiver disponível para as vacas. Muitas vezes, a água é considerada aparte dos outros nutrientes como as proteínas, no entanto, é um nutriente de suma importância para a produção pecuária; pode-se administrar poucas quantidades de alimentos aos animais, mas se faltar água em excesso os animais padecem rapidamente. Os alimentos possuem quantidades variáveis de água (umidade) em sua composição, uma gramínea verde inteira no solo pode conter de 80 a 85% de água e, portanto, conter apenas de 15 a 20% de MS. Em contrapartida, o teor de água da maioria dos alimentos concentrados é de 10%, ou seja, 90% é de MS. Embora a quantidade de água na dieta possa variar consideravelmente, normalmente é pouco significativo, já que os animais devem regular o consumo de água por conta própria, ou seja, o acesso à água de boa qualidade deverá ser de livre escolha dos animais. Entretanto, quando grandes quantidades de alimentos úmidos forem oferecidas (como polpa de beterraba ou grãos de cevada) a ingestão de energia, proteínas, minerais e vitaminas encontradas na MS da ração pode ser reduzida. Para administrar água para os bovinos deve ter em conta que: A quantidade de água para a manutenção do metabolismo está descrita na tabela 1. Tabela 1: água utilizada no metabolismo Para cada kg de MS rústica 2,5 litros Para cada kg de MS suculenta 2 litros Para cada litro de leite 4 litros Para cada kg de carne 1 litro Os principais fatores que limitam a ingestão de água são: A ingestão de MS Produção de leite A temperatura ambiente Ingestão de sódio Na Como citado supra, a temperatura é um dos fatores que influenciam na ingestão de água. Logo, sob clima quente, os animais estabulados devem receber +15% de água dos valores mencionados, os animais sob pastejo devem receber +20%. Sob clima frio, os animais estabulados devem ingerir +10% e os sob pastejo +15%. De forma geral, uma vaca em lactação deverá ingerir de 3,5 a 5,5 litros de água por kg de MS. Por exemplo, uma vaca que produz 10 kg de leite e come 12 kg de MS consumirá 12 x 4,5 = 54 kg ou litros de água/dia. Para bovinos de corte, por exemplo, considerando um animal de dois anos em condições de manejo adequado, o consumo deverá ser de 45 litros/animal/dia ou de 8 a 9 litros/100 kg de PV. 2. REQUERIMENTOS NUTRICIONAIS DOS BOVINOS Antes de explanar os requerimentos nutricionais dos bovinos em produção, faz-se necessário a explanação de alguns conceitos importantes: 2.1 Proteína e energia A proteína é o componente mais importante para o tecido animal e se encontra em concentração no tecido muscular. É essencial para o crescimento e a quantidade requerida vai diminuindo à medida que o animal se desenvolve. O corpo necessita de proteínas para a manutenção e renovação dos tecidos. Também é requerida para a realização de funções produtivas tais como a gestação e a lactação. As rações para os bovinos deverão conter a seguinte concentração de proteína: Tabela 2: porcentagem de proteína em rações para bovinos Etapa produtiva % de proteína na ração Bezerros (as) até os 4 meses 18 – 19% Bezerros (as) em crescimento 4-12 meses 17 – 18% Novilhos (as) em engorda 12-20 meses 14 – 17% Novilhas gestantes (+ de 16 meses) 19 – 20% Vacas gestantes 20% Vacas em produção leiteira 16 – 17% Reprodutores (adultos) 14 – 15% Fonte: adaptação de TEIXEIRA, 1997 e BERCHIELLI et al., 2006. A energia é o componente que o animal necessita para a realização de algumas funções, tais como a movimentação, metabolismo, temperatura corporal, respiração, produção, reprodução, crescimento e muitas outras. O valor energético pode ser expressado de duas formas, em nutrientes digestíveis totais (NDT), mais conhecido no Brasil e em unidades de amido (UA). O NDT é o sistema que calcula a energia total (proteína digestível, fibra crua digestível, extrato não-nitrogenado digestível e gordura digestível), mas levando em consideração as perdas de energia pela digestão do alimento no animal. É notório que os alimentos ricos em fibra crua necessitarão de um maior trabalho digestivo, logo, o gasto energético será maior. Por sua vez, a medida de energia líquida é conhecida como unidades de amido. 2.1.1 Fontes de energia e proteína na ração Os carboidratos fibrosos (CF), presentes nos volumosos, têm baixo teor de energia, mas são necessários para manter a ruminação, a produção de saliva e o pH ruminal para a atividade bacteriana normal. Os carboidratos não fibrosos (CFN) também são nutrientes importantes porque são fontes importantes de energia. Portanto, uma boa porção deve conter os dois. No entanto, a proporção ideal de cada tipo de carboidrato mudará dependendo do nível de produção. Com o aumento da produção de leite, a vaca necessita de mais energia e, portanto, mais concentrada na ração. As fontes de energia e proteína são críticas na formulação de uma boa mistura A porção da proteína bruta na ração que está na forma de nitrogênio não proteico (NNP) é a principal fonte de nitrogênio para o crescimento bacteriano. A deficiência de NNP pode reduzir o crescimento de bactérias e o fornecimento de aminoácidos bacterianos à vaca. O excesso de NNP na ração não é apenas um desperdício, porque não é utilizado pelas bactérias, mas também pode ser tóxico e é necessária energia para desintoxicá-lo e eliminá-lo na urina. Uma porção da proteína bruta na ração também pode ser necessária na forma de proteína resistente à degradação microbiana no rúmen. Vacas de alta produção requerem proteínas resistentes à degradação por bactérias para fornecer aminoácidos adicionais (além daqueles que podem fornecer proteína bacteriana) para absorção no intestino delgado. Assim, em boa parte, tanto a quantidade de proteína quanto a natureza da proteína devem ser cuidadosamente controladas. 2.2 Requerimentos nutricionais dos bovinos de corte. 3. COMPOSIÇÃO DOS ALIMENTOS PARA OS BOVINOS Os alimentos usados na alimentação de bovinos, como de demais espécies de interesse zootécnico, são classificados de acordo com o teor de fibra bruta e de outros nutrientes. Sendo assim, podemos dizer que basicamente são classificados em: 1) Alimentos volumosos: possuem baixo teor energético em sua composição, decorrente do alto teor em fibra ou em água. Possuem menos de 60% de NDT e/ou mais de 18% de fibra bruta (FB) na MS e englobam as forrageiras secas e grosseiras (fenos e palhas), pastagens cultivadas, pastos nativos, forrageiras verdes e silagens. São os de menor custo na propriedade. Para os bovinos os mais utilizados estão as pastagens naturais ou cultivadas (braquiárias e panicuns), capineiras (capim-elefante), silagens (capim, milho, sorgo etc.), cana-de-açúcar e o bagaço de cana hidrolisado. Entre os menos utilizados estão o milheto, feno de gramíneas, silagem de girassol, palhadas de culturas etc. 2) Alimentos concentrados: em função do baixo teor de FB (< 18%), são alimentos com alto teor energético, com mais de 60% de NDT e podem ser divididos em: a) Concentrados energéticos: aqueles com menos de 20% de PB em sua composição, 25% de FDN (fibra em detergente neutro) e em torno de 18% de FB. São exemplos de alimentos concentrados energéticos o milho, sorgo, trigo, aveia, cevada, frutas, nozes e algumas raízes (mandioca, batata etc.). b) Concentrados proteicos: alimentos com mais de 20% de PB, 50% de FDN e 60% de NDT. Como exemplo temos os farelos de soja, de amendoim, de girassol, de algodão, glúten de milho e alguns subprodutos de origem animal como a farinha de peixe, de sangue, de carne e ossos etc. Ainda assim, existem os suplementos minerais e vitamínicos e os aditivos que entram em pequenas quantidades nas rações e são antibióticos, corantes, probióticos, antioxidantes etc. Dentro da nutrição e da alimentação animal, podem ocorrer variações nas composições bromatológicas dos alimentos em função de alguns fatores, tais como as cultivares (variedades) como a planta de sorgo que apresenta variedades com e sem tanino, o armazenamento como as misturas minerais expostas ao sol podem sofrer alterações pelas reações químicas, as condições do solo, teor de água e condições de processamento. Por fim, para a formulação de dietas equilibradas, deve-se fazer uma análise, sempre que possível e viável, dos alimentos que serão utilizados no balanceamento. Sendo assim, as dietas se apresentarão o mais próximo possível das necessidades dos animais e refletirão em desempenhos satisfatórios. A tabela 14, trata da composição de alguns alimentos comumente usados na alimentação dos bovinos de corte e leite e que servirá de base para a posterior formulação de dietas para os mesmos. Após a análise bromatológica dos principais valores dos alimentos para a formulação de rações, faz-se necessário o conhecimento das quantidades dos ingredientes na dieta dos bovinos. Para tanto, a tabela 15 traz os principais alimentos e a quantidade recomendável de cada um sobre a dieta e/ou a ração total dos animais. Tabela 15: níveis recomendados dos principais ingredientes para rações de bovinos INGREDIENTE NÍVEL DE USO Milho grãos Até 70% Farelo de soja 30 a 40% Sorgo grãos Substituto 100% do milho Farelo de trigo 10 a 40% Farelo arroz desengordurado 10 a 30% Farelo amendoim 30 a 40% Farelo de algodão 30 a 40% Torta de girassol 30 a 40% Torta de colza Até 20% Torta de linhaça 5 a 10% Torta de mamona 5 a 10% Torta de gergelim 30 a 40% Farinha de peixe Até 10% Farinha de sangue 1,5 kg Polpa cítrica 20% Caroço de algodão 25% Farinha de penas 0,5 kg Farinha carne e ossos 1,5 kg Farelo de arroz 15% Soja grãos 25% Farelo de girassol 30% Gorduras 5% Resíduos de padaria 20% Grãos de destilaria 60% Grãos de cervejaria 30% Melaços 20% Subprodutos do trigo 30% Feijão 25% Glúten de milho 10% Ureia 1% Casca de algodão 40% Casca de arroz 15% Cama de galinha 15% Fontes: TEIXEIRA, A. S., 1997 e TEIXEIRA, J. C., 1997. 4. SELEÇÃO ECONÔMICA DE INGREDIENTES PARA RAÇÕES Uma das preocupações dos técnicos em nutrição animal é a minimização do custo das fórmulas de rações. Existem alguns métodos utilizados para minimizar os custos, dentre eles o método com auxílio do computador para cálculo de fórmulas e o método do valor nutricional parcial, isto é, o método onde os alimentos são selecionados de acordo com seus custos por kg em relação a outros ingredientes básicos da ração. 4.1 Uso do computador Através de programas específicos, os computadores selecionam os ingredientes com relação ao custo, construindo e fornecendo a ração mais barata dentro da finalidade de minimização do custo. Para que seja evitado que a ração escolhida pelo computador (mais barata), seja a pior dentro do aspecto nutricional, deve-se tomar as seguintes medidas: Estabelecer um controle de limite máximo para os ingredientes selecionados de forma econômica, para evitar que os mesmos ultrapassem os limites recomendados pelas técnicas nutricionais. Estabelecer nesse controle um limite mínimo para os ingredientes, que não foram selecionados, mas que a pesquisa aconselha serem incluídos à ração. Mesmo essas medidas sendo tomadas, a resposta final provém dos animais através de provas biológicas, como a conversão alimentar, custo para produzir 1 kg de carne etc. 4.2 Valor nutricional parcial Esse método é baseado em alguns critérios, dos quais: Existência de dois ingredientes padrões como o milho e a soja, que servirão de base na determinação do custo de 1 kg de proteína e de 1 Mcal de energia metabolizável, de energia digestível, de energia líquida (energia produtiva) ou 1 kg de nutrientes digestíveis totais (NDT). No nosso caso, como constituem a base de 60 a 80% das rações, os ingredientes aconselháveis para servirem de padrões são o milho, o farelo de soja ou o farelo de algodão. Este método também parte da premissa de que, quando se compra 1 kg de milho por um dado preço Vm, na verdade está se comprando 93 g de proteína e 3,52 Mcal de ED. Quando se compra 1 kg de farelo de soja por um preço Vs, está se comprando 450 g de proteína e 3,21 Mcal de ED. Alicerçados por esses dados e no fato de que proteína e energia não possuem cotação comercial, pode-se determinar os valores relativos de 1 kg de proteína (a) e de 1 Mcal de ED (b) através das equações: Equação do milho: 0,093 + 3,52 a = Vm Equação da soja: 0,450 + 3,21 b = Vs Para que se obtenha o valor nutricional parcial, multiplica-se a composição de proteína do ingrediente a ser selecionado de forma econômica pelo custo relativo de 1 kg de proteína, procedendo-se da mesma forma para a energia e somando-se os dois é obtido o valor nutricional parcial que era esperado. Pode-se incluir, também, o valor da composição mineral e vitamínica do ingrediente cotado a preço comercial desses nutrientes. Pode-se, portanto, calcular o valor nutritivo parcial levando-se em consideração mais nutrientes, como os minerais, como é o caso do Ca e P. Para tanto, deve-se tomar, como padrões, para calcular o custo de 1 kg de Ca e de 1 kg de P, isto é, o calcário calcítico e o fosfato bicálcico, respectivamente. 4.3 Relação valor nutricional parcial/preço comercial Através da divisão do valor nutritivo parcial encontrado nos cálculos pelo preço comercial do ingrediente é obtida a relação (R) valor nutritivo parcial/preço comercial de ingredientes. Alicerçados por essa premissa, podemos obter as seguintes conclusões: R = 0 o ingrediente incluído na fórmula, não reduz e nem aumenta os custos; R > 1 o ingrediente incluído na fórmula reduz o custo da ração. Ela será maior quanto maior for a relação; R < 1 a inclusão do ingrediente à fórmula aumenta o custo e será maior quanto menor for o valor da relação. 4.4 Seleção econômica do farelo de trigo Vamos selecionar o farelo de trigo que possui 16% de PB e 2,77 Mcal de ED e custa R$ 1,80 (dados de jan. 2021). O farelo de soja custa R$ 2,85 o kg e contém 45% de PB e 3,21% Mcal de ED. O milho, por sua vez, custa R$ 0,71 o kg e contém 9,3% de PB e cerca de 3,52 Mcal de ED. Para calcular o custo relativo de 1 kg de PB e de 1 Mcal de ED, usa-se os dados do milho e do farelo de soja, montando-se o seguinte sistema de equação: Equação do milho: 0,093x + 3,52y = 0,71 Equação do farelo de soja: 0,450x + 3,21y = 2,85 Resolvendo esse sistema, obtemos: x = R$ 6,00/kg de proteína y = R$ 0,04/Mcal de ED Para calcular o valor nutritivo parcial do farelo de trigo, juntamos os dados do FT com os resultados obtidos da resolução supra, assim obtemos: Valor nutritivo parcial = 0,16 x 6,00 + 2,77 x 0,04 = 1,06 Cálculo da relação valor nutritivo parcial e preço comercial, obtemos: R = "1,06" /"1,80" = 0,59 Com base no valor da relação supra 0,59, podemos dizer que em cada real pago pelo farelo de trigo será pago 0,59 centavos de real em valor nutritivo parcial em relação ao milho e ao farelo de soja tomados como padrões. Portanto, quando se incluir o farelo de trigo na ração ocorrerá o aumento do custo da mesma. Também, no caso do valor nutritivo parcial, são realizadas as mesmas restrições de controle para o uso de computadores, com o objetivo de que a ração mais econômica não seja a pior com relação a disponibilidade e carga nutricional. 5. MÉTODOS DE FORMULAÇÃO DE RAÇÕES Para a formulação de dietas para os bovinos, é necessário o conhecimento de alguns conceitos para a tomada de decisões quanto a dieta dos animais. Um dos passos-chave para a tomada de decisões é o conhecimento dos alimentos que irão compor a mistura de concentrados. A quantidade de proteína é o primeiro nutriente a ser calculado e computado, visando a determinação do nível de proteína desejável na mistura dos concentrados (tabela 2). As regras de manuseio descritas a seguir podem auxiliar na tomada de decisões para formulação de rações. Quando as vacas leiteiras recebem um alimento com elevado teor proteico, tal como as farinhas de origem animal, os farelos como o de soja, girassol etc. ou as pastagens consorciadas, os concentrados deverão ter 10% de proteína digestível (PD) ou 13% de PB; Para a suplementação da mistura diária dos alimentos, tais como o feno de alfafa e silagem de milho, os concentrados deverão conter ao redor de 12% de PD ou, aproximadamente, 16% de PB; Com uma dieta com baixo teor proteico, como baseada em silagem de milho e feno de aveia, os concentrados a serem fornecidos deverão conter, aproximadamente, de 13,5 a 16% de PD, ou seja, de 18 a 21% de PB. Os alimentos disponíveis nem sempre se encaixam nessas três regras citadas. Por exemplo, a proporção do feno de alfafa para a silagem de milho poderá variar muito afetando a necessidade de proteína exigida à adequada suplementação, através dos concentrados. Existem outros fatores que podem influenciar na tomada de decisões. A checagem das entradas e saídas ou consumo-produção pode fornecer meios de ajuste a essas variações. O fornecimento de proteínas em excesso não é prejudicial à saúde do animal, mas também não é aconselhável, dado que os suplementos proteicos são mais caros que os mais pobres em proteínas. Sendo assim, evitar o excesso de consumo de nutrientes torna-se um problema fundamentalmente econômico. Se a diferença de preços entre o suplemento proteico e um alimento energético for pequena, a importância do problema desaparece. 5.1 Procedimentos para o balanceamento de rações a) caracterização dos animais Caracterizar bem os animais a serem alimentados, em termos de categoria, idade, peso vivo, produção estimada (ganho de peso, produção de leite, teor de gordura do leite) etc. b) obtenção das exigências nutricionais Verificar os requerimentos nutricionais dos animais no que tange a energia, proteína bruta, cálcio, fósforo, aminoácidos etc., de acordo com a caracterização do animal, mencionado no item a). c) levantamento e quantificação dos alimentos disponíveis Levantar e quantificar os alimentos que estão disponíveis para o programa alimentar. Nesse momento, faz-se necessário mencionar o preço dos alimentos por kg. d) levantamento da composição bromatológica Relacionar a composição química dos alimentos a serem utilizados. Considerar na relação os nutrientes de maior interesse ou aqueles levantados nas exigências nutricionais. e) Balanceamento da ração Balancear os nutrientes levantados nas tabelas usando qualquer dos métodos descritos no item 5.2. f) ajuste final Ajustar a ração e outros nutrientes, se houver interesse, e verificar se todas as exigências foram atendidas e não haja excessos e se a combinação de alimentos é mais econômica, mediante o custo da ração por kg ou custo da ração por animal por dia. g) programa de alimentação Elaborar um programa para uso dos alimentos ou da ração incluindo as recomendações práticas. 5.2 Métodos usados no balanceamento O balanceamento de rações é a preparação equilibrada de uma porção alimentar onde se misturam vários produtos com o objetivo de suprir a necessidade nutricional dos animais. Existem muitos métodos para o balanceamento de rações, no entanto, vamos discorrer sobre os principais. A finalidade deste tópico é a abordagem dos vários métodos, e seus tratamentos matemáticos, usados no preparo de fórmulas de ração. Vamos preconizar apenas a metodologia matemática do cálculo, sem preocupar-se com a viabilidade das rações calculadas, que constituirão apenas sob exemplos hipotéticos. Todavia, outros exemplos já resolvidos serão dados conforme a viabilidade econômica e nutricional da ração para os bovinos. Após a compreensão e entendimento dos métodos aplicados e explicados nesse trabalho, será tratado a formulação de rações específicas e práticas para a alimentação racional dos bovinos. 5.2.1 Método da tentativa Aqui nenhum esquema é utilizado. O cálculo é feito através de tentativa, aumentando ou diminuindo as quantidades dos alimentos, até que as exigências do animal sejam atendidas. Dentro desse método temos a tentativa e erro e tentativa e técnica da substituição. A técnica das tentativas é trabalhosa e exige alguma experiência do formulador. 1. Como exemplo, será balanceada uma ração para uma vaca leiteira com uma exigência de 1,1 kg de PB e 6,41 NDT. Os alimentos disponíveis e sua composição bromatológica são: Alimentos Nutrientes MS (%) PB (%) NDT (%) Capim Napier 25 1,6 12 Fubá de Milho 88 9,3 80 Farelo de Algodão 90 30,0 63 Farelo de Trigo 89 15,0 63 Baseando-se nas exigências da vaca e na composição dos alimentos disponíveis, calculamos a ração por tentativa, ajustando as quantidades de alimentos até que as exigências sejam supridas. Desse modo, obtemos a dieta balanceada: Alimentos Kg MS (kg) PB (kg) NDT (kg) Capim Napier 25 6,25 0,4 3,0 Fubá de Milho 2,7 2,38 0,25 2,16 Farelo de Algodão 1,0 0,9 0,3 0,63 Farelo de Trigo 1,0 0,89 0,15 0,63 TOTAL 29,7 10,42 1,1 6,42 EXIGÊNCIAS 10,0 1,1 6,41 Transformando as quantidades dos alimentos concentrados para uma mistura percentual, obtemos: Alimentos Consumo/vaca/dia (kg) % Fubá de Milho 2,7 57,4 Farelo de Algodão 1,0 21,3 Farelo de Trigo 1,0 21,3 TOTAL 4,7 100 2. Em uma segunda tentativa, vamos determinar uma ração de 100 kg para um lote de vacas com uma exigência de 18% de PB, os alimentos disponíveis são o milho com 9% de PB e Farinha de Peixe com 53% de PB. (9% de PB = 90 g PB/kg). 1ª tentativa: usando 50% de milho + 50% de farinha de peixe, obtemos: PB da mistura: (90 x 0,5) + (530 x 0,5) = 310 g/kg A mistura acima possui muito mais proteína do que o desejado (180 g/kg). Faz-se necessário o aumento da incorporação do milho (matéria-prima menos proteica) e a diminuição da incorporação da farinha de peixe (matéria-prima mais proteica). Em uma segunda tentativa, obtemos: 2ª tentativa: 90% de milho + 10% de farinha de peixe PB da mistura: (90 x 0,9) + (530 x 0,1) = 134 g/kg A mistura possui menos proteína que o desejado, sendo assim, é necessário aumentar a incorporação da farinha de peixe (mais proteica) e diminuir a de milho (menos proteico), logo obtemos: 3ª tentativa: 79,5% de milho + 20,5% de farinha de peixe, teremos: PB da mistura: (90 x 0,795) + (530 x 0,205) = 180,2 g/kg Por fim, em 100 kg de ração com 18% de PB a mistura deverá ser composta por 79,5% de milho e 20,5% de farinha de peixe. 3. Empregando a técnica da tentativa e substituição para o exemplo supra, vamos obter: Deseja-se encontrar as porcentagens em que milho (9% PB) e farinha de peixe (53% PB) devem ser misturados de forma a obter uma mistura de 100 kg com 18% de PB. (Como sabemos 1% de PB equivale a 10 g PB/kg). 1ª tentativa: 50% milho + 50% farinha de peixe PB da mistura: (90 x 0,5) + (530 x 0,5) = 310 g/kg A mistura possui 310 g de PB/kg, sendo o teor desejado de 180 g, ou seja, teremos que diminuir o teor proteico em 130 g (310 – 180). Para diminuir o teor proteico da mistura é necessário diminuir a % de farinha de peixe e aumentar a % de milho. A % que se retira a farinha de peixe é igual a % de aumento do milho. Desse modo, obtemos o cálculo do fator de substituição: A farinha de peixe possui 530 g PB/kg O milho possui 90 g PB/kg A diferença do teor proteico entre a farinha de peixe e o milho (fator de substituição) = 440 g PB. Dessa forma, partiremos para o cálculo da quantidade a ser substituída, dada por: A substituição de 100% (FP → M) ---------- 440 g PB X ---------- 130 g PB Pelo princípio da regra de três, obtemos: 100 x 130 = 1300/440, então X = 29,5%. Temos que diminuir 29,5% da farinha de peixe e aumentar 29,5% o milho. Cálculo da nova fórmula: Milho = 50 + 29,5 = 79,5% Farinha de peixe = 50 – 29,5 = 20,5% Por fim, a mistura deverá ser composta por 79,5% de milho e 20,5% de farinha de peixe. 4. Deseja-se calcular 100 kg de ração utilizando o farelo de trigo, farinha de carne, fubá de milho e farelo de soja, observando as seguintes condições: PB deve ser igual a 17,89% e EM igual a 2.900 Kcal/kg. A recomendação é usar o farelo de trigo até 20% da ração total; farinha de carne até 10% da ração total; farelo de soja até 40% da ração total; sal 0,8% e pré-mistura de vitaminas e minerais 0,2%. A composição bromatológica dos alimentos mencionados é disposta na tabela: Alimentos PB (%) EM (Kcal/kg) Farelo de trigo 16 1.526 Farinha de carne 50 1.835 Fubá de milho 9 3.416 Farelo de soja 45 2.283 A fórmula para a energia metabolizável é: "EM" ("kcal/kg" )"=" "Quantidade do ingrediente x EM kcal/kg" /"100" " " 1ª tentativa: observando as recomendações citadas, fixa-se as quantidades de farelo de trigo, farinha de carne, fubá de milho e farelo de soja de modo a equilibrar a PB e EM da ração. Assim, tomamos 63 kg de fubá de milho, logo a quantidade do farelo de soja será: Fubá de milho + farelo de soja = 84 kg Farelo de soja = 84 – 63 = 21 kg Composição da ração em 1ª tentativa Alimentos Quantidade (kg) PB (kg) EM (kcal/kg) Farelo de trigo 10 1,6 152,6 Farinha de carne 5 2,5 91,75 Fubá de milho 63 5,67 2152,08 Farelo de soja 21 9,45 479,43 Sal 0,8 Vitaminas e minerais 0,2 TOTAL 100 19,22 2875,86 EXIGÊNCIAS 100 17,89 2900 DÉFICE 24,14 Como houve um défice de 24,14 kcal/kg de energia metabolizável, aumentamos a quantidade de fubá de milho para 66 kg e diminuímos a quantidade de farelo de soja para 18 kg. Sendo assim, faz-se uma nova tentativa com a finalidade do equilíbrio da PB e EM da ração. Composição final da ração Alimentos Quantidade (kg) PB (kg) EM (kcal/kg) Farelo de trigo 10 1,6 152,6 Farinha de carne 5 2,5 91,75 Fubá de milho 66 5,94 2254,56 Farelo de soja 18 8,1 410,94 Sal 0,8 Vitaminas e minerais 0,2 TOTAL 100 18,14 2909,85 EXIGÊNCIAS 100 17,89 2900 Por fim, a ração calculada apresenta 18,14% de PB e 2909,85 kcal/kg de EM o que satisfaz plenamente as exigências nutricionais de proteína e energia metabolizável desejadas. Formulação na prática I: Pelo método da tentativa, descrito supra, formular uma mistura para uma vaca de 450 kg de PV, com uma produção de 15 kg de leite/dia com 4,0% de gordura. 1º passo: Estabelecer as exigências: Para um animal com essas características as exigências estabelecidas são: Exigências de uma vaca de 450 kg de PV em energia, PB, Ca e P Discriminação NDT (kg) PB (g) Ca (g) P (g) Mantença 3,44 403 17 14 Lactação 4,89 1305 40 27 TOTAL 8,33 1708 57 41 2º passo: Alimentos disponíveis e sua composição Os alimentos disponíveis são silagem de milho, capim elefante napier, milho triturado, farelo de soja, farelo de trigo e pedra calcária em pó. É necessário estabelecer a composição bromatológica dos alimentos disponíveis, colocando as porcentagens de NDT, PB, Ca e P. Composição bromatológica dos alimentos disponíveis Alimentos NDT (%) PB (%) Ca (%) P (%) Silagem de milho 18,1 2,2 0,1 0,06 Capim elefante N. 13,4 1,2 0,12 0,07 Milho triturado 80 9,3 0,02 0,33 Farelo de soja 73 45 0,32 0,67 Farelo de trigo 63 16 0,14 1,24 Pedra calcária em pó - - 38 - 3º passo: Ração de volumosos diários A proporção entre volumosos e concentrados depende de alguns fatores entre os quais está a qualidade e a disponibilidade das forragens, o custo dos concentrados, o preço do leite etc. Na prática, recomenda-se as seguintes normas de fornecimento: Limites de alimentos volumosos diários sobre o PV do animal Alimentos Limite aconselhável sobre PV (%) Feno de boa qualidade 2 a 3 Silagem 4 a 6 Raízes e tubérculos 2 a 3 Capim tenro 6 a 8 A associação entre dois ou mais destes volumosos seria feito pelo critério da proporcionalidade. Quando as vacas dispõem de bom pasto, admite-se que os requerimentos de mantença e produção de até 5 kg de leite/dia, sejam supridos por meio do pastoreio. Todavia, faz-se necessário enfatizar que a qualidade das pastagens é variável conforme diversos fatores, sendo os principais a adubação, clima e idade da planta. Para esse cálculo, suponhamos a seguinte ração de volumosos: Silagem de milho ---------- 18 kg Capim elefante ------------- 9 kg 4º passo: Dedução da composição bromatológica dos alimentos volumosos Nutrientes contidos em 18 kg de silagem de milho e 9 kg de capim elefante, exigências totais e défice ou excesso Discriminação NDT (kg) PB (kg) Ca (g) P (g) 18 kg de silagem 3,26 0,396 18 10 9 kg de capim elefante 1,206 0,108 10 6 Total (1) 4,466 0,504 28 16 Exigências totais (2) 8,33 1,708 57 41 Défice (1-2) - 3,864 - 1,204 - 29 - 25 5º passo: Formular a ração dos alimentos concentrados corretivos do défice Como ocorre défice de proteína, torna-se necessária uma dosagem bastante alta de farelo de soja (matéria-prima com maior teor proteico). Quantidade de nutrientes fornecidos por 39 kg de milho triturado, 35 kg de farelo de soja, 25 kg de farelo de trigo e 1 kg de pedra calcária Discriminação NDT (kg) PB (kg) Ca (g) P (g) 39 kg de milho triturado 31,2 3,63 7,8 128,7 35 kg de farelo de soja 25,55 15,75 112 234,5 25 kg de farelo de trigo 15,75 4,0 35 310 1 kg de pedra calcária - - 380 - TOTAL 72,5 23,38 534,8 679,2 Agora, é necessário verificar a quantidade diária que deve ser fornecida. Para tal, é verificado primeiro a quantidade necessária para completar as exigências em energia (NDT). Na fórmula obtém-se através de uma regra de três, a quantidade de mistura que fornece 3,864 kg de NDT: 100 kg de mistura fornece 72,5 kg de NDT X kg fornecerão 3,864 kg que é o défice da ração volumosa, então: 100 ---------- 72,5 X ---------- 3,864 X = 100 x 3,864/72,5 X = 5,33 kg Resta verificar se os 5,33 kg de mistura cobrem o défice de proteína que é de -1,204. Novamente, aplicamos a regra: 100 ---------- 23,38 5,33 --------- X X = 5,33 x 23,38/100 X = 1,246, portanto, satisfaz plenamente o défice da dieta de volumosos fornecida. Deficiência em NDT, PB, Ca e P que são atendidas com 5,3 kg da mistura Discriminação NDT (kg) PB (kg) Ca (g) P (g) Deficiências 3,864 1,204 29 25 5,3 kg de mistura 3,864 1,246 29 36 Diferença 0 0,042 0 +11 Ração completa para a produção de 15 litros de leite/dia/vaca Dieta Ração (kg) Silagem de milho 18 Capim elefante 9 Mistura de concentrados 5,3 Essa mistura satisfaz plenamente os requisitos. O pequeno excesso de proteína seria usado pelo organismo como fonte energética, caso houvesse uma mistura de concentrados. Os níveis de Ca e P mostram-se dentro dos limites aceitáveis. O sal iodado poderá ser fornecido separado e à vontade, ou ser incorporado à ração dos concentrados na base de 0,5%. Formulação na prática II: Deseja-se formular 100 kg de ração balanceada com 14% de PB para novilhos em etapa final de engorda. Depois de formulada e equilibrada faz-se necessário calcular a quantidade necessária para cada animal segundo o PV. Planejamento inicial Alimentos PB (%) % disponível na fazenda Pasto 10 50 Cevada 10 45 Farinha semente de algodão 41 5 1º passo: Calcular a proteína total dos alimentos disponíveis. A – Pasto: 50 kg ---------- 100% do produto disponível X ----------- 10% de proteína X = 50 x 10/100 X = 5 kg de proteína no pasto B – Cevada: 45 ---------- 100% X ---------- 10% X = 45 x 10/100 X = 4,5 kg de proteína C – Farinha de semente de algodão: 5 ---------- 100% X ---------- 41% X = 5 x 41/100 X = 2,05 kg de proteína Somando-se a quantidade total de proteína disponível nos alimentos obtemos: 5 + 4,5 + 2,05 = 11,55 kg de proteína em 100 kg de mistura Isso significa que a mistura possui 11,55% de PB em sua composição. A % desejada é de 14% e a mistura possui 11,55%, ou seja, há um défice de 2,45%. Logo, faz-se necessário a incorporação de um alimento rico em PB, nesse caso, aumentar a quantidade de FSA e diminuir a de cevada. A % de PB da FSA é de 41% e a de cevada é de 10%, logo há uma diferença de 31%, que denominamos de fator de substituição e o transformamos em 0,31. Logo, temos o valor de substituição (0,31) e a quantidade de proteína a ser adicionada, então faz-se necessário a divisão da proteína faltante pelo valor de substituição: 2,45/0,31 = 7,9 A porcentagem a ser substituída é de 7,9%, aproximando para 8%. Logo, devemos diminuir 8% a incorporação da cevada e aumentar 8% a quantidade de FSA. Vejamos o planejamento: Revisando a fórmula inicial e incluindo os novos valores, obtemos: Alimentos Quantidade (kg) Nova quantidade (kg) Proteínas (%) Proteínas aportadas (%) Pasto 50 50 10 5,0 Cevada 45 – 8 = 37 10 3,7 FSA 5 + 8 = 13 41 5,33 TOTAL 100 100 - 14,03 Logo, achamos a porcentagem de proteína desejada na mistura que é de 14%, o que satisfaz plenamente as exigências dos novilhos em engorda a pasto com a suplementação concentrada de cevada e FSA no cocho. Conclui-se, então, que para balancear uma ração de 100 kg com 14% de PB para novilhos em engorda é necessário 50 kg de forragem com 10% de PB, 37 kg de cevada com 10% de PB e 13 kg de farinha de semente de algodão com 41% de PB. 5.2.2 Método do quadrado de Pearson É a técnica mais utilizada para cálculo de rações em função de sua simplicidade. A ração é calculada levando-se em consideração o valor relativo ou percentual de um dado nutriente, que é a proteína. Esse método estabelece as proporções entre dois alimentos, ou entre duas misturas de alimentos, de forma a obter um valor real para a proteína em relação ao teor proteico dos dois alimentos misturados. Para esse método é necessário o conhecimento prévio de alguns conceitos, tais como: Usar de preferência um alimento proteico e outro energético; O teor de proteína escolhido para a mistura deve estar compreendido entre o teor proteico dos alimentos escolhidos; Os dados à esquerda e no centro do quadrado devem estar expressos em porcentagem ou na mesma unidade para a facilitação do cálculo. Se desejarmos, por exemplo, fazer 78 kg de mistura com 14% de PB, para usarmos esse método temos que transformar os 14 kg de PB para % e o resultado será 18% (14 x 100/78); Os dados à esquerda referem-se aos alimentos e ao teor proteico dos mesmos, o dado no centro refere-se ao teor de proteína final da ração, ou seja, ao objetivo do cálculo, os dados à direita se referem as partes em que cada alimento irá compor a ração; A diferença efetuada diagonalmente deverá ser expressa em valor absoluto, isto é, subtraindo o menor valor do maior. Para elucidar melhor esse método vamos calcular exemplos. Cálculo de ração com dois alimentos 1. Deseja-se uma mistura com 18% de PB utilizando-se o fubá de milho 9% de PB e farelo de soja 45% de PB. Para solucionarmos o problema devemos realizar o seguinte: 1º desenhar um quadrado e colocar no seu centro a % de proteína desejada na mistura que é -/- 18%. 2º colocar em cada ângulo do lado esquerdo do quadrado, a % de proteína de cada alimento que irá compor a mistura. Nesse caso, será 9% de PB para o fubá de milho (FM) e 45% de PB para o farelo de soja (FS). FM 9% FS 45% 3º fazer a diferença entre os números, diagonalmente, colocando os resultados nos ângulos do lado direito, em valor real e absoluto, isto é, subtrair os maiores valores dos menores. Assim obtemos a subtração entre 45 – 18 = 27 e 18 – 9 = 9. Dessa forma: FM 9% 27 partes de FM FS 45% 9 partes de FS 4º os resultados são expressos em partes de cada alimento que temos que incluir para compor uma mistura com 18% de PB. Logo, temos que juntar as partes, ou seja, 27 partes do FS e 9 partes do FM, totalizando 36 partes totais. 5º as quantidades de cada alimento devem ser expressas em % do total. Sendo assim, se para 36 partes de mistura tem-se que incluir 27 partes de FM, então, para 100 partes teremos 75 de FM (27 x 100/36). O restante será de FS, ou seja, 25 partes (100 – 75). Pelo princípio da regra de três obtemos esses resultados. Para 100 partes ou 100 kg de mistura, teremos: 36 partes de mistura ---------- 27 partes de FM 100 partes de mistura ---------- X partes X = 100 x 27/36 X = 75 partes ou 75% de FM que, para 100 kg de mistura, corresponde a 75 kg. O restante corresponde ao FS, onde temos: 100 partes de mistura – 75 partes de FM = 25 partes ou 25% de FS que, para 100 kg de mistura, -/- corresponde a 25 kg. -/- Resumindo os resultados em um quadro, teremos: Alimento Kg PB (kg) Cálculo para achar a PB (kg) Fubá de Milho 75 6,75 Se 9% é 100 em x é 75, logo 9 x 75/100 = 6,75 Farelo de soja 25 11,25 Se 45% é 100 em x é 25, logo 45 x 25/100 = 11,25 TOTAL 100 18,0 A quantidade de FM e FS na mistura satisfaz plenamente os requisitos de 18% de PB na mistura. 2. Usando o exercício 2 do item 5.2.1 – Determinar a % em que o milho 9% PB e farinha de peixe 53% PB devem ser misturados de forma a obter uma ração de 100 kg com 18% de PB. M 9% 35 partes de M FP 53% 9 partes de FP Somando as partes de milho e farinha de peixe, obtemos: 35 + 9 = 44 partes totais. Agora calculamos a incorporação dos alimentos, mediante uma regra de três simples: A - Farinha de peixe: 100% da mistura ---------- 44 partes X -------------------- 9 partes X = 100 x 9/44 X = 20,5% de FP ou 20,5 kg. B - Milho: 100% da mistura ---------- 44 partes X -------------------- 35 partes X = 100 x 35/44 X = 79,5% ou kg de milho Ou, de outra forma: 100% – 20,5% da FP = 79,5% ou kg de milho. Verificando os resultados, vamos transformar as % PB de milho e farinha de peixe em g/kg, dessa forma vamos obter 9% PB milho é igual a 90 g PB/kg e 53% PB da farinha de peixe é igual a 530 g PB/kg, obtemos: REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS ANDRIGUETTO, J. M. et al. Nutrição Animal–Alimentação Animal Aplicada. São Paulo: Nobel, 3ª edição, v. 2, 1988. ARAÚJO, L. F.; ZANETTI, M. A. (Eds.). Nutrição Animal. 1ª ed. Barueri: Manole, 2019. BERCHIELLI, Telma Teresinha; PIREZ, Alexandre Vaz; OLIVEIRA, Simone Gisele de. Nutrição de ruminantes. FUNEP,, 2006. CAMPOS, J. Tabelas para o cálculo de rações. Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 1972. CHEEKE, Peter R. Applied animal nutrition: feeds and feeding. Pearson Prentice Hall;, 2005. GOES, Rafael Henrique de Tonissi et al. Alimentos e alimentação animal. UFGD: Coleção Cadernos Acadêmicos, 2013. GONÇALVES, J. N. Manual do produtor de leite. Viçosa, MG: Aprenda Fácil, 2012. GONÇALVES, L. C.; BORGES, Iran; FERREIRA, Pedro Dias Sales. Alimentação de gado de leite. Belo Horizonte: FEPMVZ, 2009. GONÇALVES, Lúcio Carlos et al. Alimentos para gado de leite. Belo Horizonte: FEPMVZ, 2009. HYND, Philip. Animal Nutrition: From Theory to Practice. CSIRO PUBLISHING, 2019. ISLABAO, Narciso; RUTZ, F. Manual de cálculo de rações. Pelotense, sd, 1978. KRUG, E. E.; FAVRETTO, D.; CAMARGO, S. R. Alimentação do gado leiteiro. Porto Alegre: Cooperativa Central Gaúcha de Leite Ltda, 1985. LANA, R. de P. Sistema Viçosa de formulação de rações. Viçosa: Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 2007. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL et al. Nutrient requirements of dairy cattle: 2001. National Academies Press, 2001. NATIONAL ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES, ENGINEERING, AND MEDICINE et al. Nutrient requirements of beef cattle. 2016. NEIVA, Rogério Santoro. Produção de bovinos leiteiros. Lavras: UFLA, 1998. NEVES, André Luis Alves et al. Tabelas nordestinas de composição de alimentos para bovinos leiteiros. Brasília, DF: Embrapa, 2014., 2014. PEIXOTO, A. M.; MOURA, J. C.; FARIA V. P. Curso de alimentação de bovinos. Piracicaba, SP. FEALQ, 1992. POND, Wilson G. et al. Basic animal nutrition and feeding. John Wiley & Sons, 2004. SALMAN, A. K.; OSMARI, E. K.; DOS SANTOS, M. G. R. Manual prático para formulação de ração para vacas leiteiras. Embrapa Rondônia-Documentos (INFOTECA-E), 2011. SILVESTRE, J. R. A.; VILELA, H. Métodos de balanceamento de rações. EMATER-MG, 1984. TEIXEIRA, A. S. Alimentos e alimentação dos animais. Vol. I, v. 5, 1997. TEIXEIRA, J. C.; TEIXEIRA, LFAC. Alimentação de bovinos leiteiros. FAEPE, Lavras, 1997. VALADARES FILHO, S. de C. et al. Tabelas brasileiras de composição de alimentos para bovinos. UFV, 2006. VALADARES FILHO, S. de C. et al. Tabelas de composição de alimentos e exigências nutricionais para bovinos no Brasil. SIMPÓSIO DE PRODUÇÃO DE GADO DE CORTE, v. 2, p. 291-358, 2001. (shrink)

The following are the characteristics of a genus: 1. Those to which the same figure of predication applies are one in genus. (Met. , Δ, 1016b32-35) 2. Things that are one in genus are all one by analogy while things that are one by analogy are not all one in genus. (Met, Δ, 1016b35-1017a3) 3. A genus includes contraries. (Met., Δ, 1018a25-31) 4. All the intermediates are in the same genus as one another and as the things they stand between. (...) (Met., I, 1057a18-30; 1057b31-34) 5. Not every predicate is a genus of what it is predicated on; for this would equate a genus with one of its own species. (PsA., A, 22, 83b7-10) 6. The opposite of the genus should always be the genus of the opposite. (To., Δ, 4, ^125a27-29) 7. A genus divides the object from other things. (To., Z, 3, 140a^24) 8. None of unity and being is a genus. (Met., B, 998b22-27; Met., K, 1059b31-34; PsA., B, 7, 92b12-14) 9. There is no necessity or even no possibility that things that are the same specifically or generically should be numerically the same. (To., H, I, 152b30-) 10. To be called one due to having one genus is in a way similar to be one due to having the same matter. (Met., Δ, 1016a24-28) 11. The substance of a thing involves its genus, and thereby all the higher genera are predicated of the lower. (To., Z, 5, 143a^20- ) 12. Being falls immediately into genera. (Met., Γ, 1004a4-6) A. Characteristics of relations between genera The characteristics of relations between genera, the relations between genera and species excluded, are as follows: 1. Genus is not an element in the composition of things. (Met., I, 1057b20-22) 2. Things resulting from the same division of the same genus are simultaneous by nature. (Cat., 13, 15a3-4) 3. Processes of proof cannot pass from one genus to another. (PsA., A, 23, 84b14-18) 4. It is not necessary for subordinate genera to have different accounts. (To., I, 15, ^107a19-) E.g. when we say a raven is a bird, we also say it is a certain kind of animal. 5. It is necessary for genera that are not subordinate one to the other to have different accounts. (To., I, 15, ^107a27-30) E.g. whenever we call a thing an engine, we do not call it an animal, nor vice versa. 6. If one of the genera is predicated in what it is, all of them, both higher and lower than this one, if predicated at all of the species, will be predicated of it in what it is; so that what has been given as genus is also predicated in what it is. (To., Δ, 2, ^122a10) 7. The same object cannot occur in two genera of which neither contains the other. (To., Z, 139b32-140a2) 8. Those to which the same figure (σχῆμα) of predication applies, are the same in genus. (Met., Δ, 1016b32-35) 9. Attributes that inhere always in each several things can be divided to two groups: those that are wider in extent but not wider than its genus and those wider than its genus. (PsA., B, 13, 96a24-27) 10. The relation between A and B must be extendable in respect of all the genera of A. Thus, if A is double of B, it must also be in excess, the genus of double, to B. Aristotle accepts, however, that this may be objectable in some cases: while knowledge is called knowledge of an object of knowledge, it cannot be called a state and disposition (which is the genus of knowledge) of an object of knowledge. In fact, it is a state and disposition of the soul. (To., Δ, 4, 124b28-34) B. Characteristics of species The following are the characteristics of species: 1. Things are said to be other in species if they are of the same genus but are not subordinate the one to the other. (Met., Δ, 1018a38-b2; Met., I, 1057b35-37) 2. Contraries are other than one another in species. (Met., Δ, 1018b5-7; Met., I, 1058b26-) 3. It is not sufficient for a difference to be the basis of distinguishing species in a genus because it belongs to the genus in virtue of its nature as, e.g., the difference between men and women belongs to animal in virtue of its nature. It must also be a modification peculiar to the genus (οἰκεῖα πάθη τοῦ γένους) in the strongest sense. (Met., I, 1058a29-37) Thus, contraries which are in the formula (ἐν τῷ λόγῳ) make a difference in species, but those which are in the compound material thing do not make one as e.g. being male and female is a difference in matter. (Met., I, 1058a37-b23) 4. Some things are peculiar to the species as distinct from genus: there are attributes peculiar to each distinct species. (PrA., A, 27, 43b27-29) 5. There is no necessity or even no possibility that things that are the same specifically should be the same numerically. (To., H, I, 155b30-) C. Characteristics of relations between genera and species The following are the characteristics of relations between genera and their species: 1. Although species predicated of individuals seem to be principles rather than the genera, it is hard to say, Aristotle asserts, in what sense species are to be taken as principles. (Met., B, 999a14-21) 2. Things that are one in species are all one in genus, while things that are one in genus are not all one in species. (Met., Δ, 1016b35a1) 3. The relation of a species to its genus is like the relation of primary substance to all others: the species is a subject for the genus (ὑπόκειται γὰρ τὸ εἴδος τῷ γένει) and the genera are predicated of the species but the species are not predicated of them. (Cat., 5, 2b17-22) 4. Of the species themselves- those which are not genera- one is no more a substance than another: a certain horse is no more a substance than another horse. (Cat., 5, 2b22-26) 5. Genera are prior to species since they do not reciprocate as to implication of existence (κατὰ τὴν τοῦ εἶναι ἀκολούθησιν). For example, if there is a fish there is an animal, but if there is an animal there is not necessarily a fish. (Cat., 13, 15a4-7) 6. What belongs both to a species and to its genus, it belongs to the species more properly indeed than to the genus. (PrA., A, 27, 43b29-32) 7. A predicate drawn from the genus is never ascribed to the species in a derived form and as its genus. Thus, e.g. coloured cannot be a genus of ‘white’ when we say ‘white is coloured.’ (To., B, I, ^109b1-5) 8. Genera are predicated of their species synonymously because the species take on both the name and the account of their genera. (To., B, I, ^109b3-6) 9. All the attributes that belong to the species belong to the genus as well but there is no necessity that all the attributes that belong to the genus should belong also to the species. (To., B, 4, 111a20-32) 10. Those things of which the genus is predicated must also of necessity have one of its species predicated of them. (To., B, 4, 111a33-) 11. The higher genus should be predicated of the species in what it is. (To., Δ, 2, ^122a6) 12. The species, or any of the things which are under the species, is not predicated of the genus because the genus is the term with the widest range of all. (To., Z, 6, 144a27f.) 13. The same species cannot be in two genera neither of which contains the other. (To., Z, 6, 144b14f.) 14. None of the species of a genus is prior or posterior to other species but they are thought to be simultaneous by nature. (Cat., 13, 14b38-15a1) 15. Daniel W. Graham points that sometimes Aristotle speaks of species as classes (Cat., 5, 2a14-17) and sometimes as properties or a certain character (ποιόν τι) of substances, which is difficult to be distinguished from the category of quality. (Cat., 3b13-22) D. Characteristics of differentia 1. The last differentia will be the substance, the definition and the form of the thing. (Met., Z, 1038a18-28) 2. If we divide according to accidental qualities, there will be as many differentiae as there are processes of division. (Met., Z, 1038a25-28) 3. The differentia divides the object from any of the things contained in the same genus. (To., Z, 3, 140a24-) 4. A. C. Lloyd argues that Aristotle’s logic of classification contains a vicious circle because: ‘For a genus to be predicated unequivocally and essentially of a species the specific differentiae have to be ‘appropriate’; but in order to know whether a proposed differentia is appropriate we have to know whether the genus is predicable essentially of the species thus defined.’ The predication of differentia on primary substance seems to make difficulties in Aristotle’s system, as Terence Irwin points out. It seems to violate the distinction of strong predication and inherence, a distinction between predication of count-nouns and predication of characterizing adjectives. Irwin says that this violation is only apparent because although the differentia-term is an adjective, its gender agrees with the gender of the understood genus-term and not with that of the subject term. ‘Man is biped’ is indeed ‘Man is a biped animal.’ This shows, Irwin asserts, ‘why Aristotle can still mention that strong predication is nominal and inherence is adjectival.’ Differentiae are not, however, secondary substances, as Aristotle himself insists. A differentia does not say what the thing is, as secondary substances do, but only what it is like or what sort it is. (ποιον: To., 122b12-17; 128a20-29; 139a28-31; 142b25-29) Nonetheless, differentiae are not qualities because they are not inherent. Thus, they cannot be regarded in any of the ten categories. Irwin thinks that this anomaly is unnecessary because Aristotle could give good reasons for taking differentiae to be second substances. E. Characteristics of relations between differentia and genera or species 1. It is not possible for the genus to be predicated of the differentia taken apart from the species. (Met., B, 998b23-25; Met., K, 1059b31-33; To., VI, 6, 144a32-b1) 2. It is not possible for the species of the genus to be predicated of the proper differentiae of the genus. (Met., B, 998b24-26) 3. Where the differentia is present, the genus accompanies it, but where the genus is, the differentia is not always present. (Met., Δ, 1014b12-14) 4. The number of species are equal to the number of differentiae. (Met., Z, 1038a15-18) 5. The differentiae of genera which are different and not subordinate one to the other are themselves different in kind. (Cat., 3, 1b16-20; To., I, 15, ^107b19-) 6. There is nothing to prevent genera subordinate one to the other from having the same differentia. (Cat., 3, 1b20-22) 7. Since the higher genera are predicated of the genera below them, all differentiae of the predicated genus will be differentia of the subject also. (Cat., 3, 1b21-24) 8. The definition of the differentia is predicated of that of which the differentia is said. (Cat., 5, 3a25-28) 9. In giving what a thing is it is more fitting to state the genus than the differentia. For example, anyone who says that man is an animal shows what man is better than who describes him as terrestrial. (To., Δ, 6, ^128a24-27) 10. The differentia always signifies a quality of the genus, but the genus does not do this of the differentia. (To., Δ, 6, 128a27-29; To., Z, 6, 144a20-23) 11. A specific differentia, along with the genus, always makes a species. (To., Z, 6, 143b^1-) 12. A genus is always divided by the differentiae that are co-ordinate with it in a division and the differentiae that are co-ordinate in a division are all true of the genus. (To., Z, 6, 143b^1-) 13. Differentia cannot be predicated of the genus because genus is the term with the wider range. (To., Z, 6, 144a27-) In fact, genus is predicated, not of the differentia, but of the object of which the differentia is predicated. (To., Z, 6, 144a^31-b3) 14. Neither species nor the objects under it can be predicated of the differentia because the differentia is a term with a wider range than the species. (To., Z, 6, 144b4-) 15. The differentia is posterior to genus but prior to the species. (To., Z, 6, 144b^9-) 16. The same differentia cannot be used of two genera neither of which contains the other and if they do not both fall under the same genus. Otherwise, the same species will be in two genera neither of which contains the other, which is impossible. (To., Z, 6, 144b14-) 17. Genus and differentia are prior to and more familiar than the species: ‘For annul the genus and the differentia; and the species too is annulled, so that they are prior to the species. They are also more familiar; for if the species is known, the genus and differentia must of necessity be known as well (for anyone who knows what a man is knows also what animal and terrestrial are), whereas if the genus or the differentia is known it does not follow of necessity that the species is known as well; thus the species is less intelligible.’ (To., Z, 4, 141b15-) F. Characteristics of relations in series of classes 1. Mutually exclusive series. If no term in the series ACD… is predicable of any term in the series BEF…, and if G- a term in the former series- is the genus of A, clearly G will not be the genus of B; since, if it were, the series would not be mutually exclusive. (PsA., A, 15, 79b6-11) 2. Atomic disconnection of series. Of two mutually exclusive series ACD and BEF, if neither A nor B has a genus and A does not inhere in B, this disconnection must be atomic. (PsA., A, 15, 79b6-14) G. Characteristics of relations of individuals 1. No individual in a species is more substance than another individual in another species. (Cat., 5, 2b26-28) An individual man, for instance, is no more a substance than an individual ox. 2. Each attribute is wider than every individual it is predicated on, though several attributes, collectively considered, might not be wider but exactly the substance of a thing. (PsA., B, 13, 96a32-b1) 3. Not distinguishing between class membership and class inclusion? Some commentators like Vlastos and Ackrill (1963, 76) criticized Aristotle because he, they believe, did not distinguish between class membership (between species and particulars) and class inclusion (between genera and their species). Having accepted this point, Daniel W. Graham believes it is ‘question-begging in a curious way.’ Phil Corkum thinks that Aristotle employs mereological notions. (This criticism seems so strange because all the Aristotle’s point in distinguishing species 2 from genera is strictly the distinction of class membership and class inclusion as they call them so. (shrink)

This paper concerns the Black Box. It is not the engineer’s black box that can be opened to reveal its mechanism, but rather one whose operations are inferred through input from (and output to) a companion observer. We are observers ourselves, and we attempt to understand minds through interactions with their host organisms. To this end, Ranulph Glanville followed W. Ross Ashby in elaborating the Black Box. The Black Box and its observer together form a system having different properties than (...) either component alone, making it a greater Black Box to any further-external observer. How far into this greater box can a further-external observer probe? The answer is crucial to understanding Black Boxes, and so an answer is offered here. It employs von Foerster’s machines, abstract entities having mechano-electrical bases, just like putative Black Boxes. Von Foerster follows Turing, Ashby, E. F. Moore, and G. H. Mealy in recognizing archetype machines that he calls trivial (predictable) and non-trivial (non-predictable). It is argued here that non-trivial machines are the only true Black Boxes. But non-trivial machines can be concatenated from trivial machines. Hence, the utter core of any greater Black Box (a non-trivial machine) may involve two (or more) White Boxes (trivial machines). This is how an unpredictable thing emerges from predictable parts. Interactions of White Boxes—of trivial machines—may be the ultimate source of the mind. Keywords: . (shrink)

Livro com 230 páginas de referência para a Formulação de Dietas e Fabricação de Rações para bovinos de corte, bovinos leiteiros, bubalinos, caprinos e ovinos. A visualização é parcial. Referências Bibliográficas: ANDRIGUETTO, J. M. et al. Nutrição Animal–Alimentação Animal Aplicada. São Paulo: Nobel, 3ª edição, v. 2, 1988. ARAÚJO, L. F.; ZANETTI, M. A. (Eds.). Nutrição Animal. 1ª ed. Barueri: Manole, 2019. BELLUZO, C. E. C. et al. Curso de atualização em ovinocultura. Araçatuba: UNESP, 2001. BORGES, Iran; GONÇALVES, Lúcio Carlos. (...) Manual prático de caprino e ovinocultura. Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 2002. CAMPOS, J. Tabelas para o cálculo de rações. Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 1972. Métodos de Formulação e Balanceamento de Rações para Bovinos. GONÇALVES, J. N. Manual do produtor de leite. Viçosa, MG: Aprenda Fácil, 2012. GONÇALVES, L. C.; BORGES, Iran; FERREIRA, Pedro Dias Sales. Alimentação de gado de leite. Belo Horizonte: FEPMVZ, 2009. GONÇALVES, Lúcio Carlos et al. Alimentos para gado de leite. Belo Horizonte: FEPMVZ, 2009. HYND, Philip. Animal Nutrition: From Theory to Practice. CSIRO PUBLISHING, 2019. ISLABAO, Narciso; RUTZ, F. Manual de cálculo de rações. Pelotense, sd, 1978. KESSLER, J. Mineral nutrition of goats. Goat nutrition, v. 46, p. 104-119, 1991. LANA, R. de P. Sistema Viçosa de formulação de rações. Viçosa: Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 2007. NASCIMENTO, Cristo; CARVALHO, Luiz Octavio Moura. Criação de búfalos: alimentação, manejo, melhoramento e instalações. Brasília: EMBRAPA-SPI, 1993. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL et al. Nutrient requirements of dairy cattle: 2001. National Academies Press, 2001. National Research Council. NRC. 2007. Nutrient requirements of small ruminants: sheep, goats, cervids, and new world camelids. National Academy of Science, Washintgton, DC 347p. NATIONAL ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES, ENGINEERING, AND MEDICINE et al. Nutrient requirements of beef cattle. 2016. NEIVA, Rogério Santoro. Produção de bovinos leiteiros. Lavras: UFLA, 1998. NEVES, André Luis Alves et al. Tabelas nordestinas de composição de alimentos para bovinos leiteiros. Brasília, DF: Embrapa, 2014., 2014. PAUL, Shyam Sunder; LAL, Dalip. Nutrient requirements of buffaloes. Azadpur, Dellhi: Satish Serial Publishing House, 2010. POND, Wilson G. et al. Basic animal nutrition and feeding. John Wiley & Sons, 2004. RIBEIRO, SD de A. Caprinocultura: criação racional de caprinos. São Paulo: Nobel, v. 35, 1997. SALGADO, EMILIANO ARAUJO. Tabelas regionais de composição de alimentos para gado de leite no estado do Rio Grande do Sul. 2018. SALMAN, A. K.; OSMARI, E. K.; DOS SANTOS, M. G. R. Manual prático para formulação de ração para vacas leiteiras. Embrapa Rondônia-Documentos (INFOTECA-E), 2011. SUSIN, I.; BATISTA, A. M.; SIQUEIRA, E. R. Exigências nutricionais de ovinos e estratégias de alimentação. Nutrição de ovinos. Jaboticabal: FUNEP, p. 119-141, 1996. TEIXEIRA, A. S. Alimentos e alimentação dos animais. Vol. I, v. 5, 1997. TEIXEIRA, J. C.; TEIXEIRA, LFAC. Alimentação de bovinos leiteiros. FAEPE, Lavras, 1997. VALADARES FILHO, S. de C. et al. CQBAL 3.0. Tabelas Brasileiras de Composição de Alimentos para Bovinos. Disponível em: www. ufv. br/cqbal. Acesso em, v. 19, n. 03, 2015. (shrink)

Artificial intelligence (AI) is an area of computer science that emphasizes the creation of intelligent machines or software that work and reacts like humans, some of the computer activities with artificial intelligence are designed to include speech, recognition, learning, planning and problem solving. Deep learning is a collection of algorithms used in machine learning, it is part of a broad family of methods used for machine learning that are based on learning representations of data. Deep learning is used as a (...) technique to produce brain tumor detection and classification models using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) imaging for rapid and easy detection and identification of brain tumor. In this thesis, some ways and mechanisms will be reviewed to use deep learning techniques to produce a model for brain tumor detection. The goal is to find a good and effective way to detect brain tumor based on MRI to help the brain doctor in making decisions easily, accurately and rapidly. A recent report by the World Health Organization in February 2018 showed that the death rate from brain cancer or central nervous system (CNS) is the highest in the Asian continent. It is important to detect cancer early so that many of these lives can be saved. The model has been designed and implemented, including a dataset which consist of 10,000 images for brain tumor detection through the use of Deep learning algorithms based on neural networks. For testing, we have used our model, Inception, VGG16, MobileNet and ResNet models. The f-score accuracy we got for each model was as follows: Our model was 98.28, VGG16 was 99.86%, ResNet50 was 98.14%, MobileNet was 88,98%, and InceptionV3 was 99.88%. (shrink)

Brain-related diseases are among the most difficult diseases due to their sensitivity, the difficulty of performing operations, and their high costs. In contrast, the operation is not necessary to succeed, as the results of the operation may be unsuccessful. One of the most common diseases that affect the brain is Alzheimer’s disease, which affects adults, a disease that leads to memory loss and forgetting information in varying degrees. According to the condition of each patient. For these reasons, it is important (...) to classify memory loss and to know the patient at what level and his assessment of Alzheimer's disease through CT scans of the brain. In this thesis, we review ways and techniques to use deep learning classification to classifying the Alzheimer's Disease The proposed method used to improve patient care, reduce costs, and allow fast and reliable analysis in large studies. The model will be designed using Python language for implementing the system, which is very useful for doctors, classifying the Alzheimer's Disease, was used. The model used 70% from image for training and 30% from image for validation, our trained model achieved an accuracy of 100% on a held-out test set. (shrink)

I present a possible worlds semantics for a hyperintensional belief revision operator, which reduces the logical idealization of cognitive agents affecting similar operators in doxastic and epistemic logics, as well as in standard AGM belief revision theory. (Revised) belief states are not closed under classical logical consequence; revising by inconsistent information does not perforce lead to trivialization; and revision can be subject to ‘framing effects’: logically or necessarily equivalent contents can lead to different revisions. Such results are obtained without resorting (...) to non-classical logics, or to non-normal or impossible worlds semantics. The framework combines, instead, a standard semantics for propositional S5 with a simple mereology of contents. (shrink)